Saturday, July 4, 2020

The Model Treaty, 1776

The Model Treaty was a template for commercial treaties that the United States Continental Congress sought to make with France and Spain in order to secure assistance in the struggle against the British in the American Revolution. Congress approved the treaty on September 17, 1776. The Model Treaty did not contain provisions for direct military support, but rather for the supply of weapons and other indirect assistance, in addition to favorable commercial terms. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce that the United States and France concluded in 1778 was based on this treaty and was signed concurrently with the Treaty of Alliance that included provisions of a military nature. The Model Treaty also served as a template for further commercial treaties the United

Indo-China War of 1967

After the violent clash between India and China on August 20, 1967,

Nathu La Battle 1967

India began to cover its border with three layers of fencing wire. On 23 August 1967, Chinese troops marched towards Nathu La and halted at the border. One officer had a red patch on his hat and was shouting slogans from a book while other soldiers were raising slogans behind him. After about an hour, the Chinese troops retreated. However, he returned again and continued to protest. On 5 September 1967, India began upgrading the barbed wire fence into a concertina coil. During this time, the Chinese political officers got into an argument with

Know why there was a military clash between India and China in 1967 in Nathu La

On June 15, 2020, violent clashes took place in the Galvan region between India and China. Prior to this incident, the last military skirmish between India and China was in 1967.

On June 15, 2020, 20 Indian soldiers were killed in a violent clash between India and China. This was the first conflict between India and China after September 1967. The last Indo-China military skirmish took place in Nathu La in 1967. After this skirmish, there were threats of use of cannon and fighter jets along with a scuffle between the soldiers of the two countries. . In the violent clash of 1967, 88 Indian soldiers were killed while 300 Chinese soldiers were killed.

Panchsheel Agreement between India and China

The Panchsheel, or Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, was first formally signed on 28 April 1954 on the Trade and Peace Agreement between the Tibet region of India and China. The agreement was signed between the then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and China's first Premier (Prime Minister) Chou En Lai.

At the time of India's independence, the relationship between India and China was not as bitter as it has been since 1962. Since America favored Pakistan at that time, India thought it good to keep good relations with its neighbor China. This is the reason that India did not strongly oppose China taking possession of Tibet in 1950, but relations started to get tighter when India gave shelter to the Dalai Lama in India.Although the immediate Prime Minister Nehru tried to make good relations between the two countries through the Panchsheel agreement, they did not succeed and the 1962 war took place between the two countries.Now let us know in this article what was the Panchsheel agreement between India and China and why was it done

1776–1783: Diplomacy and the American Revolution

In the 1770s, the increasingly defiant American colonies began to work toward political independence from the British Government.

General George Washington at Yorktown

Tensions continued to escalate until, in 1775, armed conflict erupted. The colonists, who were economically dependent on Europe, recognized that European nations were unlikely to conclude trade agreements with the Americans unless they declared their independence. The U.S. Continental Congress endorsed Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and, with the endorsement of this document, the conflict with Great Britain became a full-fledged War of Independence.

1785 James Hutton, geologist, publicly reads an abstract of his theory of uniformitarianism for the first time at the meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh

James Hutton, (born June 3, 1726, Edinburgh, Scotland—died March 26, 1797, Edinburgh), Scottish geologist, chemist, naturalist, and originator of one of the fundamental principles of geology—uniformitarianism, which explains the features of the Earth’s crust by means of natural processes over geologic time.

James Hutton: Scottish geologist, physician, chemical manufacturer ...

Hutton was the son of a merchant and city officeholder. Though Hutton’s father died when his son was quite young, Hutton managed an education in the local grammar school and at the University of Edinburgh. Although already interested in chemistry, he entered the legal profession. But as a lawyer’s apprentice, he is said to have devoted more time to amusing his fellow clerks with chemical experiments than to copying legal documents. He, along with his friend James Davie, was also deeply interested in investigating the manufacture of sal ammoniac from coal soot. As a result, he was released from law apprenticeship before his first year was out, and he turned to the study of medicine, as it was most closely related to chemistry. He spent three years at the University of Edinburgh, then two in Paris, and finally was granted an M.D. degree in Holland in September 1749.

The Declaration of Independence, 1776 OR 4th JULY 1776 US Congress proclaims the Declaration of Independence and independence from Britain

By issuing the Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, the 13 American colonies severed their political connections to Great Britain. The Declaration summarized the colonists’ motivations for seeking independence. By declaring themselves an independent nation, the American colonists were able to confirm an official alliance with the Government of France and obtain French assistance in the war against Great Britain.

The Declaration of Independence

Throughout the 1760s and early 1770s, the North American colonists found themselves increasingly at odds with British imperial policies regarding taxation and frontier policy. When repeated protests failed to influence British policies, and instead resulted in the closing of the port of Boston and the declaration of martial law in Massachusetts, the colonial governments sent delegates to a Continental Congress to coordinate a colonial boycott of British goods. When fighting broke out between American colonists and British forces in Massachusetts, the Continental Congress worked with local groups, originally intended to enforce the boycott, to coordinate resistance against the British. British officials throughout the colonies increasingly found their authority challenged by informal local governments, although loyalist sentiment remained strong in some areas.

Night of the Long Knives By 1934 Adolf Hitler appeared to have complete control over Nazi Germany

Night of the Long Knives

By 1934 Adolf Hitler appeared to have complete control over Nazi Germany, but like most dictators, he constantly feared that he might be ousted by others who wanted his power. To protect himself from a possible coup, Hitler used the tactic of divide and rule and encouraged other leaders such as Hermann Göring, Joseph Goebbels, Heinrich Himmler and Ernst Röhm to compete with each other for senior positions.

Albert Speer pointed out in his book, Inside the Third Reich (1970): "After 1933 there quickly formed various rival factions that held divergent views, spied on each other, and held each other in contempt. A mixture of scorn and dislike became the prevailing mood within the party. Each new dignitary rapidly gathered a circle of intimates around him. Thus Himmler associated almost exclusively with his SS following, from whom he could count on unqualified respect... As an intellectual Goebbels looked down on the crude philistines of the leading group in Munich, who for their part made fun of the conceited academic's literary ambitions. Göring considered neither the Munich philistines nor Goebbels sufficiently aristocratic for him and therefore avoided all social relations with them; whereas Himmler, filled with the elitist missionary zeal of the SS felt far superior to all the others." (1)

Röhm complained to Herman Rauschning about not being appointed a minister in the Nazi government. Röhm told Rauschning: "Adolf is a swine... He only associates with the reactionaries now. His old friends aren't good enough for him. Getting matey with the East Prussian generals. They're his cronies now... Are we revolutionaries or aren't we? The generals are a lot of old fogies. They will never have a new idea... I don't know where he's going to get his revolutionary spirit from. They're the same old clods, and they'll certainly lose the next war." (2)

Opposition to Ernst Röhm

Industrialists such as Albert Voegler, Gustav Krupp, Alfried Krupp, Fritz Thyssen and Emile Kirdorf, who had provided the funds for the Nazi victory, were unhappy with Röhm's socialistic views on the economy and his claims that the real revolution had still to take place. Walther Funk reported that Hjalmar Schacht and his friends in big business were worried that the Nazis might begin "radical economic experiments".

1860 Oxford evolution debate

The 1860 Oxford evolution debate took place at the Oxford University Museum in Oxford, England, on 30 June 1860, seven months after the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.^[1] Several prominent British scientists and philosophers participated, including Thomas Henry Huxley, Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, Benjamin Brodie, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Robert FitzRoy.^[1]
The debate is best remembered today for a heated exchange in which Wilberforce supposedly asked Huxley whether it was through his grandfather or his grandmother that he claimed his descent from a monkey.^[2] Huxley is said to have replied that he would not be ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor, but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used his great gifts to obscure the truth.

The Death of Emperor Montezuma

Montezuma II Xocoyotzín, Emperor of the Aztecs

Montezuma had been selected to be Tlatoani (the word means "speaker") in 1502, the maximum leader of his people: his grandfather, father and two uncles had also been tlatoque (plural of tlatoani). From 1502 to 1519, Montezuma had proven himself to be an able leader in war, politics, religion, and diplomacy. He had maintained and expanded the empire and was lord of lands stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Hundreds of conquered vassal tribes sent the Aztec's goods, food, weapons, and even slaves and captured warriors for sacrifice.

The Death of Montezuma

Cortes and the Invasion of Mexico

In 1519, Hernan Cortes and 600 Spanish conquistadors landed on Mexico's Gulf coast, establishing a base near the present-day city of Veracruz. They began slowly making their way inland, collecting intelligence through Cortes' interpreter/mistress Doña Marina ("Malinche"). They befriended disgruntled vassals of the Mexica and made an

Susan Hayward

Susan Hayward, original name Edythe Marrener, (born June 30, 1917, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.—died March 14, 1975, Los Angeles, California), American film actress who was a popular star during the 1940s and ’50s known for playing courageous women fighting to overcome adversity.

Marrener grew up in a working-class family. Following her graduation from Girls’ Commercial High School, she began working as a photographer’s model. After filmmaker George Cukor saw a colour photo of her in the Saturday Evening Post, she was invited to audition for the part of Scarlett O’Hara in Gone with the Wind (1939). Her lack of acting experience came through in her screen test,

The Germans’ summer offensive in southern Russia, 1942

The German plan to launch another great summer offensive crystallized in the early months of 1942. Hitler’s decision was influenced by his economists, who mistakenly told him that Germany could not continue the war unless it obtained petroleum supplies from the Caucasus. Hitler was the more responsive to such arguments because they coincided with his belief that another German offensive would so drain the Soviet Union’s manpower that the U.S.S.R. would be unable to continue the war. His thinking was shared by his generals, who had been awed by the prodigality with which the Soviets squandered their troops in the fighting of 1941 and the spring of 1942. By this time at least 4,000,000 Soviet troops had been killed, wounded, or captured, while German casualties totaled only 1,150,000.

Libya and Egypt, autumn 1941–summer 1942

In the Western Desert, a major offensive against Rommel’s front was undertaken on November 18, 1941, by the British 8th Army, commanded by Cunningham under the command in chief of Wavell’s successor in the Middle East, General Sir Claude Auchinleck. The offensive was routed. General Neil Methuen Ritchie took Cunningham’s place on November 25, still more tanks were brought up, and a fortnight’s resumed pressure constrained Rommel to evacuate Cyrenaica and to retreat to Agedabia. There, however, Rommel was at last, albeit meagrely, reinforced; and, after repulsing a British attack on December 26, he prepared a counteroffensive. When the British still imagined his forces to be hopelessly crippled, he attacked on January 21, 1942, and, by a series of strokes, drove the 8th Army back to the Gazala–Bir Hakeim line, just west of Tobruk.

The Chinese front and Burma, 1941–42

Japan’s entry into war against the western Allies had its repercussions in China. Chiang Kai-shek’s government on December 9, 1941, formally declared war not only against Japan (a formality long overdue) but also, with political rather than military intent, against Germany and Italy. Three Chinese armies were rushed to the Burmese frontier, since the Burma Road was the only land route whereby the western Allies could send supplies to the Nationalist Chinese government. On January 3, 1942, Chiang was recognized as supreme Allied commander for the China theatre of war; and a U.S. general, Joseph W. Stilwell, was sent to him to be his chief of staff. In the first eight weeks after Pearl Harbor, however, the major achievement of the Chinese was the definitive repulse, on January 15, 1942, of a long-sustained Japanese drive against Ch’ang-sha, on the Canton–Han-k’ou railway.

The fall of Singapore

Meanwhile, on February 8 and 9, three Japanese divisions had landed on Singapore Island; and on February 15 they forced the 90,000-strong British, Australian, and Indian garrison there, under Lieutenant General A.E. Percival, to surrender. Singapore was the major British base in the Pacific and had been regarded as unassailable due to its strong seaward defenses. The Japanese took it with comparative ease by advancing down the Malay Peninsula and then assaulting the base’s landward side, which the British had left inadequately defended. On February 13, moreover, Japanese paratroopers had landed

Pearl Harbor and the Japanese expansion, to July 1942

In accordance with Yamamoto’s plan, the aircraft carrier strike force commanded by Admiral Nagumo Chuichi sailed eastward undetected by any U.S. reconnaissance until it had reached a point 275 miles north of Hawaii. From there, on Sunday,

December 7, 1941, a total of about 360 aircraft, composed of dive-bombers, torpedo bombers, and a few fighters, was launched in two waves in the early morning at the giant U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. The base at that time was accommodating 70 U.S. fighting ships, 24 auxiliaries, and some 300 planes. The Americans were taken completely by surprise, and all eight battleships in the harbour were hit (though six were eventually repaired and returned to service);

Japanese policy, 1939–41

When war broke out in Europe in September 1939, the Japanese, despite a series of victorious battles, had still not brought their war in China to an end: on the one hand, the Japanese strategists had made no plans to cope with the guerrilla warfare pursued by the Chinese; on the other, the Japanese commanders in the field often disregarded the orders of the supreme command at the Imperial headquarters and occupied more Chinese territory than they had been ordered to take. Half of the Japanese Army was thus still tied down in China when the commitment of Great Britain and France to war against Germany opened up the prospect of wider conquests for Japan in Southeast Asia and in the Pacific. Japan’s military ventures in China proper were consequently restricted rather more severely henceforth.

Sukarno,

PRESIDENT OF INDONESIA

Sukarno, also spelled Soekarno, (born June 6, 1901, Surabaja [now Surabaya], Java, Dutch East Indies—died June 21, 1970, Jakarta, Indonesia), leader of the Indonesian independence movement

and Indonesia’s first president (1949–66), who suppressed the country’s original parliamentary system in favour of an authoritarian “Guided Democracy” and who attempted to balance the Communists against the army leaders. He was deposed in 1966 by the army under Suharto.

Early Life And Education

Sukarno was the only son of a poor Javanese schoolteacher, Raden Sukemi Sosrodihardjo, and his Balinese wife, Ida Njoman Rai. Originally named Kusnasosro, he was given a new and, it was hoped, more auspicious name,

Prince William, Duke of Cambridge

Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, KG, KT, PC, ADC (William Arthur Philip Louis;^{[fn 1]} born 21 June 1982) is a member of the British royal family. He is the elder son of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of Wales. Since birth, he has been second in the line of succession to the British throne.

William was educated at four schools in the United Kingdom and studied for a degree at the University of St Andrews. During a gap year, he spent time in Chile, Belize, and Africa. In December 2006, he completed 44 weeks of training as an officer cadet and was commissioned in the Blues and

Benazir Bhutto (1953–2007)

Early Life

Benazir Bhutto was born on June 21, 1953, in Karachi, Pakistan, the eldest child of former premier Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. She went on to found the Pakistan People's Party and serve as the nation's prime minister (from 1971 to 1977). After completing her early education in Pakistan, she pursued her higher education in the United States. Bhutto attended Radcliffe College from 1969 to 1973 and then enrolled at Harvard University, where she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in comparative government. It was then onto the United Kingdom, where she studied at Oxford University from 1973 to 1977, completing a course in international law and diplomacy.

Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem

Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is a proof by British mathematician Andrew Wiles of a special case of the modularity theorem for elliptic curves. Together with Ribet's theorem, it provides a proof for Fermat's Last Theorem. Both Fermat's Last Theorem and the modularity theorem were almost universally considered inaccessible to proof by contemporaneous mathematicians, meaning that they were believed to be impossible to prove using current knowledge.

1990 June 21, Earthquake devastates Iran

1990

June 21,Earthquake devastates Iran

An earthquake near the Caspian Sea in Iran kills an estimated 50,000 and injures another 135,000 people on June 21, 1990. The 7.7-magnitude tremor wrecked havoc on the simply constructed houses in the area.

Thirty minutes past midnight, with most people sleeping in their homes, a violent quake, centered along the shores of the Caspian Sea in northwestern Iran shattered the nighttime tranquility. A 20,000-square-mile area in the provinces of Zanjan and Gilan was absolutely devastated. This region encompasses both farms and sea resorts–all were demolished. In towns along one 80-mile stretch, every single building was reduced to

June 21, 1948 – Lord Mountbatten resigned as the Governor General of India

On this day, June 21, in the year 1948, Lord Mountbatten resigned as the Governor General of India. Mountbatten was the last British viceroy of India and he was appointed by the British government to wrap up the British Empire in our country.

He served as the last Viceroy of India from February 12, 1947 to August 15, 1947 and then as the first Governor General of free India from August 15, 1947 to June 21, 1948. During his tenure, India got independence in the form of two dominions of India and Pakistan. The task of creating the boundaries between the two nations was also executed under his leadership.

Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma

Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma (born Prince Louis of Battenberg; 25 June 1900 – 27 August 1979), was a British Royal Navy officer and statesman, an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and second cousin once removed of Queen Elizabeth II. During the Second World War, he was Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command (1943–1946). He was the last Viceroy of India (1947) and the first governor-general of independent India (1947–1948).

The First Victoria Cross Winner 1854
Ever since the Crimean War (1854-56) the Victoria Cross has been the highest award for British service personnel for gallantry in the face of the enemy. It takes precedence in order of wear over all other British orders, decorations, and medals, including the Order of the Garter. Instituted by Queen Victoria in 1856 it was revolutionary at the time of introduction in that award made no distinction between officers and enlisted men. Of some 1358 awarded since then, only fifteen have been won since the end of WW2. The medal is of bronze taken from Russian cannon captured at Sevastopol and these cannon themselves may have been of Chinese origin.

Battle of Bomarsund

The Battle of Bomarsund, in August 1854, took place during the Crimean War, when an Anglo-French expeditionary force attacked a Russian fortress. It was the only major action of the war to take place at Bomarsund in the Baltic Sea.

Bomarsund was a 19th-century fortress, the construction of which had started in 1832 by Russia in Sund, Åland Islands, in the Baltic Sea. Bomarsund had not been completed (only two towers

Ratification of the Constitution by the State of New Hampshire, June 21, 1788

New Hampshire was the ninth state to do so, and with its ratification, the Constitution was officially in effect. New Hampshire's ratification message included several suggested changes to the Constitution, including one which would said "Congress shall never disarm any citizen, unless such as are or have been in actual rebellion." The following text is taken from the Library of Congress's copy of Elliot's Debates.

In Convention of the Delegates of the People of the State of New Hampshire, June the 21st, 1788.

The Convention having impartially discussed and fully considered the Constitution for the United States of America, reported to Congress by the Convention of Delegates from the United States of America, and submitted to us by a resolution of the General Court of said state, passed the 14th day of December last past, and acknowledging with grateful hearts the goodness of the Supreme Ruler