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Showing posts with label World Knowledge. Show all posts
Showing posts with label World Knowledge. Show all posts
Wednesday, December 30, 2020
Historical Events of 30 December
Monday, December 28, 2020
The Golden Horde was the European appanage of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE).
The Golden Horde was the European appanage of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE). Begun in earnest by Batu Khan in 1227 CE, the territory that would eventually become the Golden Horde came to encompass parts of Central Asia, much of Russia, and other parts of Eastern Europe. Later converting to Islam, the Golden Horde would meld aspects of cultures from Europe, Asia, and the Middle East while ruling Russia for over two centuries. At its height, Mongol raids from the Golden Horde extended from the Caucasus to Hungary to Constantinople, inspiring fear across the known the world of the fearsome Mongol horsemen, or, as they knew them, the Tartars.
They Came from the East
IT WAS TO FALL TO JOCHI’S SON, BATU KHAN, TO CONSOLIDATE CONQUESTS AROUND THE URAL MOUNTAINS & BEYOND & ESTABLISH THE GOLDEN HORDE.
Under the leadership of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE), the Mongol Empire began the greatest military machine of the medieval world. Expanding from Korea to the Caspian Sea under Genghis’ reign, his sons and grandsons would bring the Mongol Empire to its heights, creating the largest contiguous land empire the world has ever seen.
According to Mongol tradition, Genghis divided his empire into appanages for each of his four sons. Genghis’ first son, Jochi received the lands furthest from Mongolia, those around the Ural Mountains and beyond. It was to fall to Jochi’s son, Batu Khan (r. 1227-1255 CE), to consolidate these future conquests and establish what would become known as the Golden Horde.
The Mongol invasions of Russia and Eastern Europe in 1223 CE and then 1237 CE and 1242 CE
The Mongol invasions of Russia and Eastern Europe occurred first with a brief sortie in 1223 CE and then again in a much larger campaign between 1237 CE and 1242 CE. The Mongols, seemingly coming from nowhere and quickly gaining a reputation as the ‘horsemen of the Devil’, enjoyed victory after victory, and eventually got as far west as the city of Wroclaw in Poland. Great cities like Tbilisi, Kiev and Vladimir fell and, reaching the Danube river, they sacked the Hungarian cities of Buda, Pest, and Gran (Esztergom). Neither the Russians or the major European powers could organise themselves sufficiently to adequately meet the five-pronged attack the Mongols had launched or deal with their swift cavalry, incendiary-firing catapults and terror tactics. The rest of Eastern and Central Europe was only saved by the death of Ogedei Khan (r. 1229-1241 CE) which caused the Mongols to retreat. Despite the massive death and destruction there were some lasting cultural benefits to the invasion as the two worlds of east and west finally met. Western travellers began to visit East Asia, a region that had hitherto been a legendary land of monsters - a view the Chinese also held in regard to Europe. With the Mongol invasion of Europe, the world had become a lot more violent and just that bit smaller.
The Mongols Sack Suzdal
Ogedei Khan
Ogedei Khan became ruler of the Mongol Empire in 1229 CE, inheriting from his father Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE) an impressive swathe of Asia. The new khan was faced with two major problems at the outset of his reign: first, the imperial treasury was empty and riches were badly needed to keep the Mongol army loyal, and second, the Mongols had
Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, Temür Khan, sixth Great Khan, Öljeitü, or Emperor Qinming Guangxiao, Temür (which means "blessed iron Khan" in the Mongolian language) ruled as the second emperor of China's Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty from 1294, until his death in 1307.
Temür Khan
Full Name: Temür Öljeytü Khan
Profession: Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty
Nationality: 
Mongolian
Also known as Öljeitü, or Emperor Qinming
Guangxiao, Temür (which means "blessed iron Khan" in the Mongolian
language) ruled as the second emperor of China's Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty from
1294, until his death in 1307.
Temür was also the nominal sixth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire around the
time of the empire's dissolution into four separate khanates.
Temür's reign was largely successful, despite having to fight off rebellions in
South China and Korea, challenges to his throne, and large-scale corruption
within his empire.
Temür was posthumously given the temple name
Chengzong, which means “Accomplished Ancestor”.
Born: October 15, 1265
Birthplace: Khanbaliq (Dadu or modern day Beijing), Mongol Empire
(Yuan Dynasty)
Star Sign: Libra
Died: February
10, 1307 (aged 41)
Sunday, November 1, 2020
Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, November 1, 1973 in Mangalore, Karnataka, India
Biography
Jump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (3) | Spouse (1) | Trade Mark (1) | Trivia (120) | Personal Quotes (50)
Overview (4)
| Born | in Mangalore, Karnataka, India |
| Birth Name | Aishwarya Krishnaraj Rai |
| Nicknames | Ash Gullu |
| Height | 5' 7" (1.7 m) |
Mini Bio (3)
Born into a traditional south Indian family, Aishwarya started modeling at a young age. This green-blue-eyed beauty appeared in advertisements for many prestigious firms; the ones that brought her into the limelight were the garden sari and the Pepsi ad. Crowned Miss India 1994 runner-up, she was a hot favorite in the run for miss world title, which she won, her beauty and charm made her India's darling. Ash stormed into the Indian movie industry, where she has proven herself a brilliant & genuine actress. Her performance in Iruvar (1997) was critically acclaimed, and she won the Screen best female debutant award for her role in ...Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya (1997). She was adored in movies like Taal (1999), Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999), Devdas (2002), her item number in 'Bunty & Bubbly' had sent waves of rhythm across the nation. With her successful Bollywood movies and prestigious Hollywood projects lined up for release it is impossible to ignore this Indian diva in international scenes.
Friday, October 23, 2020
Historical Events 23th october
| Historical Events 23th October |
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Thursday, September 17, 2020
SINDH UNDER BOMBAY/Mombay residency
15.9.2020 تي روزاني پنهنجي اخبار ۾ منهنجو مضمون
سنڌ بمبئي جي قبضي ۾ ڪون هئي
ممتاز بخاري
ڪنهن به خطي، صوبي، علائقي، رياست ۽ ملڪ کي ٻي ملڪ جو حصو سمجهڻ يا بڻائڻ عالمي قانون ۾ ڊگهو عمل آهي ۽ ان سان گڏ قبضي وسيلي ڪو به ڌرتي جو حصو بنا قائدن ۽ قانونن جي ان جو سمجهڻ به هڪ وڏي سمجهه واري ڳالهه هوندي آهي. جيئن عام طور اهو سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته ورهاڱي کان اڳ سنڌ کي بمبئي پريزيڊنسي جو حصو بڻايو ويو ۽ ان جو مطلب ڪڍي تاريخ جي ان حصي ۾ سنڌ جي وجود جي مڪمل خاتمي جو تاثر ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان معاملي جي تاريخي پس منظر ڏانهن وڃڻ کان اڳ ڪجهه اهم ڳالهيون سمجهڻ ضروري آهن.
دنيا ۾ ڪجهه رائج طريقا آهن جنهن سان ملڪ، رياستون يا خطا هڪ ٻئي ۾ ضم يا شامل ٿيندا آهن.
1. رضاڪاراڻو طريقو: هن طريقي سان ڪو به ملڪ ٻي ملڪ ۾ مرضي سان ضم ٿيندو آهي يا ڪي رياستون، صوبا، خطا يا علائقا ڳالهين وسيلي ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ ضم ٿيندا آهن ۽ ان جو مستقل حصو بڻجي ويندا آهن. جيئن پاڪستان ۽ هندستان ٺهڻ مهل ڪجهه رياستن رضاڪاراڻي طريقي سان ۽ ڪجهه رياستن ڳالهين وسيلي انهن ملڪن جو حصو ٿيون ۽ ڪشمير تضاد جي ور چڙهيو.
2. جارحيت وسيلي قبضو: هن طريقي سان ڪنهن ملڪ جون فوجون ڏاڍ ڪري مختلف خطن ۾ ملڪن تي وڃي قبضا ڪنديون آهن. جيئن، رومن، يوناني، منگولن، عربن، ترڪن وغيرهه ٻين خطن ۾ وڃي قبظا ڪيا ۽ جارحيت سان علائقن کي پنهنجي سلطنتن جو حصو بڻايو. سترهين صديءَ کان وري يورپ جي ملڪن دنيا ٻين ملڪن ۽ حصن ۾ وڃي نئون بيٺڪيت وارو نظام قائم ڪيو جنهن جو مک مقصد اقتصادي وسيلن تي قبضو هيو ۽ ان سلسلي ۾ ئي انگريزن هندستان ۽ سنڌ تي مڪمل قبضو ڪري ورتو. ويهين ۽ ايڪويهين صديءَ ۾ وري فوجون لاهڻ وارو عمل سامهون آيو جيئن آمريڪا ويٽنام، عراق ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ٻين ملڪن ۾ علائقن تي قبظا ڪيا جنهن کي عالمي قانون ۾ Invaded چيو ويندو آهي.
ان کانپوءِ وري دٻاءُ يا اڌ مرضي جي بنياد تي به اهڙو عمل ڪيو ويندو آهي جيئن سويت يونين جو بنياد يا يونائيٽڊ ڪنگڊم (يوڪي) ۾ مختلف يورپي خطن کي شامل ڪرڻ وغيره. ان جا به طريقا آهن.
1. الحاق ڪرڻ Affiliation/Instrument of Accession: هن طريقي سان ڪابه رياست وغيرهه ڳالهين وسيلي ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ ڪجهه شرطن وسيلي شامل ٿيندي آهي. جنهن جو مثال خيرپور رياست جو آهي ته جڏهن 1947ع ۾ ان جو قائداعظم محمد علي جناح سان ائگريمينٽ ٿيو هو ته اهو هڪ الحاق هيو جنهن ۾ رياست خيرپور مواصلات، دفاع ۽ فنانس جا معاملا پاڪستان جي حڪومت جي حوالي ڪيا باقي ونهوار رياست جو هيو. ايئن ڪجهه ٻين رياستن به ڪيو اهڙي عمل کي الحاق چئبو آهي.
2. ضم ٿيڻ Merger Agreement: ضم ٿيڻ جو مطب آهي ته ڪو خطو، علائقو، ٿورو گهڻو خود مختيار صوبو ۽ رياست مڪمل طور ڪنهن ملڪ يا ٻي ڪنهن حصي ۾ شامل ٿي وڃي، پوءِ اها ڏاڍ واري طريقي سان يا رضا خوشي سان ته ان کي مرجر ائگريمينٽ چئبو آهي جيئن پاڪستان ۾ قلات، سوات، بهاولپور ۽ خيرپور رياستن ڪيو. مٿي جيئن مثال ڏنو ويو ته خيرپور رياست گورنر جنرل پاڪستان قائد اعظم محمد علي جناح سان معاهدي تحت 1947ع ۾ الحاق ڪيو ۽ وري ڊسمبر 1954ع ۾ گورنر جنرل پاڪستان غلام محمد سان مرجر ائگريمينٽ وسيلي مڪمل طور پاڪستان جي صوبي سنڌ ۾ ضم ٿي وئي.
3. منسلڪ ڪرڻ Annexation: جيڪڏهن ڪنهن به خطي يا خود مختيار علائقي تي قبضو ڪرڻ بعد ان کي ڪنهن ٻي قبضي آيل خطي يا وري پنهنجي ملڪ جي ڪنهن يونٽ سان انتظامي مقصدن لاءِ گڏايو ڪيو وڃي ته ان کي منسلڪ ڪرڻ چيو ويندو آهي. پر ان خطي جي Territorial زميني سڃاڻپ ختم ناهي ٿيندي جيئن انگريزن ۾ ننڍي کنڊ ۾ اچي پريزڊنسيون ٺاهيون ۽ منڍ ۾ سورت پريزيڊنسي ۾ هندستان جا قبضي ڪيل علائقا ”منسلڪ“ ڪيا ويا نه ڪي ضم ڪيا ويا، ڪنهن حد تائين انهن کي الحاق جي صورت ڏني وئي.
سنڌ جي بمبئي سان منسلڪ ٿيڻ جو تاريخي پس منظر ۽ صورتحال:
1843ع ۾ ٽالپرن ۽ انگريزن جي وچ ۾ فيصلائتي جنگ ۾ انگريزن سنڌ فتح ڪري ورتي ۽ ان جنگ ۾ سنڌ جي ويڙهاڪن جو وڏو جاني نقصان ٿيو. انگريزن جي سنڌ تي حڪمراني مڙهجي وئي ۽ سنڌ ملڪ کي گڏيل هندستان جو صوبو بڻائي ڇڏيو. انگريزن هندستان ۾ اقتصادي پرمار طور آيا هئا. ان حوالي سان هنن هڪ پنهنجو انتظامي نظام به جوڙي ڇڏيو هو. 1618ع ۾ هنن پهرين سورت پريزيڊنسي قائم ڪئي ۽ ان ۾ مختلف علائقن کي انتظامي حوالي سان منسلڪ ڪيو نه ڪي انهن جي ٽيريٽري Territory کي ضم ڪيو. امپريلزم واري سوچ آڌار هنن علائقا فتح ڪيا، پريزڊنسيون قائم ڪري فتح ڪيل ڪجهه علائقا ۽صوبا ان سان منسلڪ ڪندا ويا. پريزيڊنسين کي انهن ريڪارڊ ۾ انتظامي سب ڊويزن لکيو آهي. بمبئي پريزيڊنسي 1661ع ۾ قائم ٿي. جاگرافيائي اهميت جي ڪري انگريزن بمبئي کي جهڙوڪر مرڪزي حيثيت ڏئي ڇڏي. سنڌ کي فتح ڪرڻ بعد انهن 1847ع ۾ بمبئي سان منسلڪ ڪري ڇڏيو. انگريزن جا سڀ ريڪارڊ ٻڌائن ٿا ته اها Annexation of Sindh هئي نه ڪي الحاق يا ضم ڪرڻ هو. سنڌ کانسواءِ ان پريزيڊنسي ۾ گجرات، مهاراشٽرا، ڪونڪن وغيرهه جهڙا وڏيون رياستون به منسلڪ ڪيون ويون هيو.
حقيقت اها آهي ته چارلس نيپيئر ايڊنبرو ۾ اندروني ڇڪتاڻ هئي. ايڊنبرو نه پيو چاهي ته نيپيئر جي پوزيشن مضبوط ٿئي. ان وقت جي جيڪا لکپڙهه پڙهبي ته سنڌ جي بمبئي سان منسلڪ ڪرڻ جي حقيقت سامهون اچي ويندي. ان لک پڙهه ۾ اهو جواز ڄاڻايل آهي ته سنڌ جي معاشي صورتحال اهڙي ناهي جو اها پنهنجي سر ڪجهه اڳڀرائي يا ترقي ڪري سگهي ان ڪري ان کي بمبئي پريزيڊنسي سان ”منسلڪ“ ڪيو وڃي جيئن اها پاڻ ڀري ٿي سگهي. ان وقت جي جيڪا به لک پڙهه پڙهجي ٿي جواز سنڌ کي پاڻ ڀرو بڻائڻ ئي ڄاڻايو ويو آهي نه ڪي ان کي مستقل طور بمبئي سان ضم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏنل آهي. جڏهن سنڌ کي پريزيڊنسي ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو ته ان ۾ به ڄاڻايو ويو ته سنڌ جون ٽي انتظامي ڊويزنون قائم ڪجن ٿيون ۽ جيڪب آباد واري ضلعي جو نالو به اپر سنڌ فرنٽيئر بارڊر ڊسٽرڪٽ ڏنو ويو جنهن مان ظاهر آهي ته انگريزن سنڌ جي خطي طور سڃاڻپ ختم نه ڪئي هئي ۽ جيڪي به تعليم، روينيو ۽ آبپاشي کاتن جا ريڪارڊ ملن ٿا يا آدمشاري جو ذڪر اچي ٿو ته سنڌ جي خطي Territory واري حيثيت برقرار رهي آهي. سنڌ جي خودمختياري تي انگريزن جو مڪمل اختيار اچي ويو هو. سنڌ کي بمبي پريزيڊنسي سان منسلڪ ڪري ڪمشنري نظام لاڳو ڪيو ويو. سنڌ جي خطي طور سڃاڻپ وارو ٻيو ثبوت برطانوي راچ پاران 1868ع وار ”سنڌ ايڪٽ“ آهي. ان ۾ به ڄاڻايل آهي ته سنڌ ۾ جيڪو ڪمشنر هوندو اهو خودمختيار حڪمران وانگر هوندو. سنڌ جي معاشي حوالي توڙي ان کي بمبي پريزيڊنسي سان منسلڪ ڪري ڪمشنري نظام هيٺ آڻڻ لاءِ آر.ڊي چوڪسي جو سنڌ جي سماجي ۽ معاشي زندگي بابت ڪتاب The Story of Sindh جي صفحي 16 جو هي حوالو وڌيڪ چٽي تصوير پيش ڪري ٿو.
Lord Ellenborough wrote to Napier on 12th April: The abolition of transit duties will diminish the revenue but in Sindh we must do all for futurity, we have to create an Egypt, and we must not allow little views of present advantage to interfere with the realization of the greatest future objects…. He had, besides, decided that the Government of Bombay should in no way be concerned with the administration of Sindh which was to proceed in direct relation with himself. Sindh was to be governed from Calcutta. By order of 2nd April the Province was to be divided into three Collectorates; two for lower Sindh and one in Upper Sindh. These were Shikarpur, Hyderabad and Karachi:
جيڪڏهن اهو سمجهيو ٿو وڃي ته سنڌ بمبئي جو مڪمل حصو بڻائي وئي يا ان کي ضم ڪيو ويو ته اهي ڀليل آهن اهي ريڪارڊ جي ڇنڊڇاڻ ڪن. سڀ کان اهم ڳالهه اها آهي ته ان سنڌ صوبي جي انتظامي خودمختياري جي بمبئي سان منسلڪيت Annexation ٿي هئي جيڪا برطانوي راڄ جي قائم ٿيل هئي، باقي سنڌ جي خطي Territory واري سڃاڻپ انگريزن ريڪارڊ ۾ به برقرار رکي ۽ هر آدمشماري ۾ سنڌ ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي ڳڻپ سنڌ جي خطي طور ئي ڪئي. جڏهن سنڌ جي صوبي طور بحالي جي جدوجهد هلي ته ان جو مک نقطو ئي اهو هيو ته سنڌ صوبي کي بمبئي کان ڌار ڪيو جنهن جو مقصد ان جي خودمختياري ۽ نيپيئر واري دور جي ٿوري گهڻي تبديلي سان انتظامي پوزيشن واپس آڻڻ هيو. اها به تاريخ جي حقيقت آهي ته انگريز جيڪڏهن جارحاڻي چاڙهه ڪري سنڌ کي هندستان جو صوبو نه بڻائن ها ته پوءِ 1947ع واري هندستان جي ورڇ واري صورتحال شايد بنهه مختلف هجي ها يا انگريز جيئن آيا هئا تيئن هن خطي جي جاگرافي ڇڏي وڃن ها. پر سنڌ کي هندستان جو صوبو بڻايو ويو ۽ سنڌ پاڪستان کي وجود ۾ آندو.
Monday, September 14, 2020
Jennifer Aniston's 'Friends' co-star had a huge crush on her
Jennifer Aniston's 'Friends' co-star had a huge crush on her
Jennifer Aniston has been a household name for decades because of her charming personality and outstanding performance in her hit sitcom 'Friends'.
Saturday, August 8, 2020
Economic development of Korea
Economic development of Korea
Reconstruction of the country after the war proceeded with extensive Chinese and Soviet assistance. Koreans with experience in Japanese industries also played a significant part. Land was collectivized between 1953 and 1958. Resistance appears to have been minimal as landlords had been eliminated by the earlier reforms or during the war. Although developmental debates took place within the Workers' Party of Korea in the 1950s, North Korea, like all the postwar communist states, undertook massive state investment in heavy industry, state infrastructure and military strength, neglecting the production of consumer goods.
History of North Korea
History of North Korea
The history of North Korea began at the end of World War II in 1945. The surrender of Japan led to the division of Korea at the 38th parallel, with the Soviet Union occupying the north, and the United States occupying the south. The Soviet Union and the United States failed to agree on a way to unify the country, and in 1948 they established two separate governments – the Soviet-aligned Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Western-aligned Republic of Korea – each claiming to be the legitimate government of all of Korea. In 1950 the Korean War broke out. After much destruction, the war ended with a stalemate. The division at the 38th parallel was replaced by the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Tension between the two sides continued. Out of the rubble North Korea built an industrialized command economy. Kim Il-sung led North Korea until his death in 1994. He developed a pervasive personality cult and steered the country on an independent course in accordance with the principle of Juche (self-reliance). However, with natural disasters and the collapse of the Soviet Bloc in 1991, North Korea went into a severe economic crisis. Kim Il-sung's son, Kim Jong-il, succeeded him, and was in turn succeeded by his son, Kim Jong-un. Amid international alarm, North Korea developed nuclear missiles. In 2018, Kim Jong-un made a sudden peace overture towards South Korea and the United States.
NORTH KOREA NUCLEAR TEST
NORTH KOREA NUCLEAR TEST
North Korea’s economic woes let up a bit due to improved relations with South Korea, which adopted a “sunshine policy” of unconditional aid towards its northern neighbor in the early 2000s. Around the same time, North Korea came closer than ever before to forging peace with the United States, even hosting U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright in Pyongyang in 2000. But relations between the two Koreas, and between North Korea and the West, soon deteriorated, due to North Korea’s aggressive efforts to become a nuclear power. Though Kim Jong Il had pledged to abide by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) signed in 1995, in the early 2000s reports began to surface of underground nuclear facilities and ongoing research into the production of highly enriched uranium. By 2003, North Korea had withdrawn from the NPT, expelled international weapons inspectors and resumed nuclear research at a facility in Yongbyon. Three years later, Kim’s government announced it had carried out its first underground nuclear test.
KIM JONG IL
KIM JONG IL
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc hurt North Korea’s economy and left the Kim regime with China as its only remaining ally. In 1994, Kim Il Sung died of a heart attack and was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong Il. The new leader instituted a new policy of “Songun Chong’chi,” or military first, establishing the Korean People’s Army as the leading political and economic force in the nation. The new emphasis widened existing inequalities between the military and elite classes and the vast majority of ordinary North Korean citizens. Over the course of the 1990s, widespread flooding, poor agricultural policies and economic mismanagement led to a period of extended famine, with hundreds of thousands of people dying of starvation and many more crippled by malnutrition. The emergence of a robust black market to meet such shortages would force the government to take measures to liberalize the state-run economy.
KIM IL SUNG
KIM IL SUNG
After the Korean War, Kim Il Sung shaped his country according to the nationalist ideology of “Juche” (self-reliance). The state assumed tight control over the economy, collectivized agricultural land and effectively asserted ownership over all private property.State-controlled media and restrictions on all travel into or out of the country helped preserve the veil of secrecy around North Korea’s political and economic operations and maintain its isolation from most of the international community. The country’s population would remain almost entirely Korean, except for a small number of Chinese transplants.Thanks to investment in mining, steel production and other heavy industries, North Korea’s civilian and military economy initially outpaced its southern rival. With Soviet backing, Kim built his military into one of the world’s strongest, even as many ordinary civilians grew poorer. By the 1980s, however, South Korea’s economy boomed, while growth in the north stagnated
KOREAN WAR
KOREAN WAR
With both leaders claiming jurisdiction over the entire Korean Peninsula, tensions soon reached a breaking point. In 1950, with the backing of the Soviet Union and China, North Korean forces invaded South Korea, setting off the Korean War. The United States came to the South’s aid, leading an army of some 340,000 United Nations troops in opposing the invasion. After three years of bitter fighting and more than 2.5 million military and civilian casualties, both sides signed an armistice in the Korean War in July 1953. The agreement left the borders of North and South Korea essentially unchanged, with a heavily guarded demilitarized zone about 2.5 miles wide running roughly along the 38th parallel. A formal peace treaty, however, was never signed.
38TH PARALLEL
38TH PARALLEL
In 1910, Japan formally annexed the Korean Peninsula, which it had occupied five years earlier following the Russo-Japanese War. Over the next 35 years of colonial rule, the country modernized and industrialized significantly, but many Koreans suffered brutal repression at the hands of Japan’s military regime. During World War II, Japan sent many Korean men to the front as soldiers or forced them to work in wartime factories, while thousands of young Korean women became “comfort women,” providing sexual services to Japanese soldiers. Upon Japan’s defeat in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union divided the peninsula into two zones of influence along the the 38th parallel, or 38 degrees north latitude. In 1948, the pro-U.S. Republic of Korea (or South Korea) was established in Seoul, led by the strongly anti-communist Syngman Rhee. In the northern industrial center of Pyongyang, the Soviets installed the dynamic young communist guerrilla Kim Il Sung, who became the first premier of the DPRK.
Galileo’s Copernicanism
Galileo’s Copernicanism
Galileo’s increasingly overt Copernicanism began to cause trouble for him. In 1613 he wrote a letter to his student Benedetto Castelli (1577–1644) in Pisa about the problem of squaring the Copernican theory with certain biblical passages. Inaccurate copies of this letter were sent by Galileo’s enemies to the Inquisition in Rome, and he had to retrieve the letter and send an accurate copy. Several Dominican fathers in Florence lodged complaints against Galileo in Rome, and Galileo went to Rome to defend the Copernican cause and his good name. Before leaving, he finished an expanded version of the letter to Castelli, now
addressed to the grand duke’s mother and good friend of Galileo, the dowager Christina. In his Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, Galileo discussed the problem of interpreting biblical passages with regard to scientific discoveries but, except for one example, did not actually interpret the Bible. That task had been reserved for approved theologians in the wake of the Council of Trent (1545–63) and the beginning of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. But the tide in Rome was turning against the Copernican theory, and in 1615, when the cleric Paolo Antonio Foscarini (c. 1565–1616) published a book arguing that the Copernican theory did not conflict with scripture, Inquisition consultants examined the question and pronounced the Copernican theory heretical. Foscarini’s book was banned, as were some more technical and nontheological works, such as Johannes Kepler’s Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. Copernicus’s own 1543 book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi (“Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”), was suspended until corrected. Galileo was not mentioned directly in the decree, but he was admonished by Robert Cardinal Bellarmine (1542–1621) not to “hold or defend” the Copernican theory. An improperly prepared document placed in the Inquisition files at this time states that Galileo was admonished “not to hold, teach, or defend” the Copernican theory “in any way whatever, either orally or in writing.”
Telescopic Discoveries
Telescopic Discoveries
At this point, however, Galileo’s career took a dramatic turn. In the spring of 1609 he heard that in the Netherlands an instrument had been invented that showed distant things as though they were nearby. By trial and error, he quickly figured out the secret of the invention and made his own three-powered spyglass from lenses for sale in spectacle makers’ shops. Others had done the same; what set Galileo apart was that he quickly figured out how to improve the instrument, taught himself the art of lens grinding, and produced increasingly powerful telescopes. In August of that year he presented an eight-powered instrument to the Venetian Senate (Padua was in the Venetian Republic). He was rewarded with life tenure and a doubling of his salary. Galileo was now one of the highest-paid professors at the university. In the fall of 1609 Galileo began observing the heavens with instruments that magnified up to 20 times. In December he drew the Moon’s phases as seen through the telescope, showing that the Moon’s surface is not smooth, as had been thought, but is rough and uneven. In January 1610 he discovered four moons revolving around Jupiter. He also found that the telescope showed many more stars than are visible with the naked eye. These discoveries were earthshaking, and Galileo quickly produced a little book, Sidereus Nuncius (The Sidereal Messenger), in which he described them. He dedicated the book to Cosimo II de Medici (1590–1621), the grand duke of his native Tuscany, whom he had tutored in mathematics for several summers, and he named the moons of Jupiter after the Medici family: the Sidera Medicea, or “Medicean Stars.” Galileo was rewarded with an appointment as mathematician and philosopher of the grand duke of Tuscany, and in the fall of 1610 he returned in triumph to his native land.
Galileo was now a courtier and lived the life of a gentleman. Before he left Padua he had discovered the puzzling appearance of Saturn, later to be shown as caused by a ring surrounding it, and in Florence he discovered that Venus goes through phases just as the Moon does. Although these discoveries did not prove that Earth is a planet orbiting the Sun, they undermined Aristotelian cosmology: the absolute difference between the corrupt earthly region and the perfect and unchanging heavens was proved wrong by the mountainous surface of the Moon, the moons of Jupiter showed that there had to be more than one centre of motion in the universe, and the phases of Venus showed that it (and, by implication, Mercury) revolves around the Sun. As a result, Galileo was confirmed in his belief, which he had probably held for decades but which had not been central to his studies, that the Sun is the centre of the universe and that Earth is a planet, as Copernicus had argued. Galileo’s conversion to Copernicanism would be a key turning point in the Scientific Revolution.
After a brief controversy about floating bodies, Galileo again turned his attention to the heavens and entered a debate with Christoph Scheiner (1573–1650), a German Jesuit and professor of mathematics at Ingolstadt, about the nature of sunspots (of which Galileo was an independent discoverer). This controversy resulted in Galileo’s Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari e loro accidenti (“History and Demonstrations Concerning Sunspots and Their Properties,” or “Letters on Sunspots”), which appeared in 1613. Against Scheiner, who, in an effort to save the perfection of the Sun, argued that sunspots are satellites of the Sun, Galileo argued that the spots are on or near the Sun’s surface, and he bolstered his argument with a series of detailed engravings of his observations.
Galileo’s Copernicanism
Galileo’s increasingly overt Copernicanism began to cause trouble for him. In 1613 he wrote a letter to his student Benedetto Castelli (1577–1644) in Pisa about the problem of squaring the Copernican theory with certain biblical passages. Inaccurate copies of this letter were sent by Galileo’s enemies to the Inquisition in Rome, and he had to retrieve the letter and send an accurate copy. Several Dominican fathers in Florence lodged complaints against Galileo in Rome, and Galileo went to Rome to defend the Copernican cause and his good name. Before leaving, he finished an expanded version of the letter to Castelli, now
addressed to the grand duke’s mother and good friend of Galileo, the dowager Christina. In his Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, Galileo discussed the problem of interpreting biblical passages with regard to scientific discoveries but, except for one example, did not actually interpret the Bible. That task had been reserved for approved theologians in the wake of the Council of Trent (1545–63) and the beginning of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. But the tide in Rome was turning against the Copernican theory, and in 1615, when the cleric Paolo Antonio Foscarini (c. 1565–1616) published a book arguing that the Copernican theory did not conflict with scripture, Inquisition consultants examined the question and pronounced the Copernican theory heretical. Foscarini’s book was banned, as were some more technical and nontheological works, such as Johannes Kepler’s Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. Copernicus’s own 1543 book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi (“Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”), was suspended until corrected. Galileo was not mentioned directly in the decree, but he was admonished by Robert Cardinal Bellarmine (1542–1621) not to “hold or defend” the Copernican theory. An improperly prepared document placed in the Inquisition files at this time states that Galileo was admonished “not to hold, teach, or defend” the Copernican theory “in any way whatever, either orally or in writing.”
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