Sufism (or taṣawwuf; Arabic: الصوفية) is a branch of Islam,[1] defined by adherents as the
inner, mystical dimension of Islam; others
contend that it is a perennial philosophy of existence that pre-dates religion,
the expression of which flowered within IslamIts essence has also been
expressed via other religions and metareligious phenomena.] A practitioner of this
tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ). They belong to different "orders" – congregations formed around a master – which
meet for spiritual sessions (majalis), in meeting places known as zawiyahs, khanqahs, or tekke.[6] All Sufi orders (turuq)
trace many of their original precepts from the Islamic Prophet Muhammad through his cousin and
son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib,
with the notable exception of the Sunni Naqshbandi order who claim to trace
their origins through the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.[7] However, Alevi and Bektashi muslims (and someShia muslims) claim that every
Sufi order traces it's spiritual lineage back to one of the Twelve Imams,
the spiritual heads of Islam who were foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successorsand were all
descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and Ali. Because of thisAli ibn Abi Talib is also called the father of sufism.[8][9] Prominent orders include Alevi,Bektashi, Mevlevi, Ba 'Alawiyya, Chishti, Rifa'i, Khalwati, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Oveyssi, Qadiria Boutshishia, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya andSuhrawardiyya.[10]
Sufis
believe they are practicing ihsan (perfection of worship) as
revealed by Gabriel toMuhammad:
"Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing Him and
while you see Him not yet truly He sees you". Sufis consider themselves as
the original true proponents of this pure original form of Islam. Sufism is
opposed by Wahhabi and Salafist Muslims.
Classical
Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the
reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".[11] Alternatively, in the words
of the DarqawiSufi
teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba,
"a science through which one can know how to travel into thepresence of the Divine,
purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of
praiseworthy traits".[12]
Muslims
and mainstream scholars of Islam define Sufism as simply the name for the inner
or esoteric dimension of Islam[3] which is supported and
complemented by outward or exoteric practices of Islam, such as Islamic law.[13] In this view, "it is
absolutely necessary to be a Muslim" to be a true Sufi, because Sufism's
"methods are inoperative without" Muslim "affiliation".[14] In contrast, author Idries Shah states Sufi philosophy is
universal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and Christianity.[15] Some schools of Sufism in Western countries allow
non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Sufi path".[16]Some Muslim opponents of Sufism also
consider it outside the sphere of Islam.[3][17]
Classical
Sufis were characterised by their attachment to dhikr, (a practice of repeating the names of
God, often performed after prayers)[18] and asceticism. Sufism
gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the
worldliness of the earlyUmayyad
Caliphate (661–750 CE[19]). Sufis
have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, originally
expressing their beliefs in Arabic, before spreading into Persian, Turkish, Indian
languages and a dozen other languages.[20]
Etymology
Two
origins of the word sufi have been suggested.
Commonly, the lexical root of the word is traced to ṣafā (صَفا), which in Arabic means
"purity". Another origin is ṣūf (صُوف), "wool",
referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. The two were
combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears
wool on top of purity".[21][22]
Others
have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah ("the people of the
bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held
regular gatherings of dhikr.[23] Abd al-Karīm ibn Hawāzin Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all
possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds.[24]
According
to the medieval scholar Abū
Rayḥān
al-Bīrūnī, the word sufi is derived from the Greek word sofia (σοφία), meaning wisdom.[25][26][27]
The tomb of Sheikh Rukn-ud-Din Abul Fath located in Multan, Pakistan. The city of Multan is known
for various Sufi Saint tombs, as they call it the City of Saints
While
all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to God and hope to become
close to God in Paradise—after death and after the "Final
Judgment"—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and
to more fully embrace the Divine Presence in this life.[28]The chief aim of all Sufis is to
seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial
state of fitra,[29] described in the Qur'an. In
this state nothing one does defies God, and all is undertaken with the single
motivation of love of God.
A secondary consequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all
notions of dualism or multiplicity, including
a conception of an individual self, and to realize
the Divine Unity.[citation needed]
Thus,
Sufism has been characterized[by whom?] as the science of the
states of the lower self (the ego), and the way of purifying this lower self of
its reprehensible traits, while adorning it instead with what is praiseworthy,
whether or not this process of cleansing and purifying the heart is in time
rewarded by esoteric knowledge of God. This can be conceived in terms of two
basic types of law (fiqh), an outer
law concerned with actions, and an inner law concerned with the human heart.[citation needed] The outer law consists of
rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, and
criminal law—what is often referred to, broadly, as qanun. The inner law of Sufism
consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible
qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good
character.[30]
The
typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque and taught a small band of
disciples. The extent to which Sufism was influenced by Buddhist and Hindu
mysticism, and by the example of Christian hermits and monks, is disputed, but
self-discipline and concentration on God quickly led to the belief that by
quelling the self and through loving ardour for God it is possible to maintain
a union with the divine in which the human self melts away.[31]
Entrance of Sidi Boumediene mosque inTlemcen, Algeria, built to
honor 12th century Sufi master Abu Madyan
To
enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins by finding a teacher, as the
connection to the teacher is considered necessary for the growth of the pupil.
The teacher, to be considered genuine, must have received the authorization to
teach (ijazah) from
another Master of the Way, in an unbroken succession (silsilah)
leading back to Muhammad.[dubious – discuss][citation needed] It is the transmission of
the divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather
than of worldly knowledge transmitted from mouth to ear, that allows the adept
to progress. In addition, the genuine teacher will be utterly strict in his
adherence to the Divine Law.[32]
According
to Moojan Momen "one of the most
important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of the "Perfect Man" (al-Insan
al-Kamil). This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth
a "Qutb" (Pole
or Axis, of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to
man and in a state of wilaya (sanctity, being under the
protection of God). The concept of the Sufi Qutb is similar to that of the Shi'i Imam.[33] However, this belief puts
Sufism in "direct conflict" with Shi'ism, since both the Qutb (who
for most Sufi orders is the head of the order) and the Imam fulfill the role of
"the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of God's grace to mankind".
The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is taken by Sufis is
considered incompatible with devotion to the Imam".[33]
As
a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been
ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1,001 days prior
to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in
solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that instruction.[34]
Some
teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of
Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor.[35] Although approaches to
teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily
concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been
compared to other, non-Islamic forms ofmysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein Nasr).
Scholars
and adherents of Sufism are unanimous in agreeing that Sufism cannot be learned
through books.[dubious – discuss] To reach the highest levels
of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with and serve
the teacher for many, many years.[citation needed] For instance, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to
the Naqshbandi Order, served his first
teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He
subsequently served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. The
extreme arduousness of his spiritual preparation is illustrated by his service,
as directed by his teacher, to the weak and needy members of his community in a
state of complete humility and tolerance for many years. When he believed this
mission to be concluded, his teacher next directed him to care for animals,
curing their sicknesses, cleaning their wounds, and assisting them in finding
provision. After many years of this he was next instructed to spend many years
in the care of dogs in a state of humility, and to ask them for support.[36]
Eminent
Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition
first began with Ali ibn Abi Talib.
Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of the principals and
practices of Sufism.[37]
Practitioners
of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively
referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam.[38] According to one
perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and
experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development.[39] Others have held that
Sufism is the strict emulation of the way ofMuhammad, through
which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.[40]
More
prosaically, the Muslim conquests had brought large numbers
of Christian monks and hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under the rule
of Muslims. They retained a vigorous spiritual life for centuries after the
conquests, and many of the especially pious Muslims who founded Sufism were
influenced by their techniques and methods.[41] According to late Medieval
mystic Jami, Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was the first person to be
called a "Sufi."[24]
Important
contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni,
Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib. Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sufis in
Baghdad, was also an influential early figure,[42][43] as was Junayd of Baghdad; a
number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two.[44]
Sufism
had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi
teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.[45] The Naqshbandi order is a notable
exception to general rule of orders tracing their spiritual lineage through
Muhammad's grandsons, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad to
the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.[7]
Towards
the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals began to be written
summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices.
Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb ofHujwiri, and the Risâla of Qushayri.[46]
Two
of Imam Al Ghazali's greatest
treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy
of Happiness", argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and thus was
compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way contradict
Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. This became
the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only
recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of texts.[example
needed] Ongoing efforts by both
traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making Imam
Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation for the first time,[47] allowing English-speaking
readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi
doctrine.
The
rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi
philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive
factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic
cultures, especially in Africa[48] and Asia. The Senussi tribes of Libya and Sudan
are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such
as Khoja
Akhmet Yassawi, Rumi and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 – c. 1221) greatly
enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South
Asia.[49][50] Sufism also played a role
in creating and propagating the culture of the Ottoman world,[51] and in resisting European
imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.[52]
Between
the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual
culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose physical
artifacts survive. In many places a pious foundation would endow a lodge (known
variously as a zaouia, khanqah, or tekke) in perpetuity (waqf) to provide a gathering place for
Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same
system of endowments could also pay for a complex of buildings, such as that
surrounding the Süleymaniye
Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi
seekers, a hospicewith
kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of
initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the
civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period.[53]
Current
Sufi orders include Alians, Bektashi Order, Mevlevi Order, Ba 'Alawiyya, Chishti,Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya,Suhrawardiyya, Ashrafia and Uwaisi (Oveyssi).[10] The relationship of Sufi
orders to modern societies is usually defined by their relationship to
governments.[54]
Turkey
and Persia together have been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The
Bektashi was closely affiliated with the Ottoman Janissary and is the heart of
Turkey's large and mostly liberal Alevi population. It has been
spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia,
Kosovo and more recently to the USA (via Albania). Most Sufi Orders have
influences from pre-Islamic traditions such as Pythagoreanism, but
the Turkic Sufi traditions (including
Alians, Bektashi and Mevlevi) also have traces of the ancient Tengrism shamanism.
Sufism
is popular in such African countries as Morocco and Senegal, where it is
seen as a mystical expression of Islam.[55] Sufism is traditional in
Morocco but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of Sufism around contemporary
spiritual teachers such as Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutshishi. Mbacke suggests
that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate
local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.[56]
The
life of the Algerian Sufi master Emir Abd al-Qadir is instructive in this
regard.[57] Notable as well are the
lives of Amadou Bambaand Hajj Umar Tall in sub-Saharan Africa, and Sheikh Mansur Ushurma and Imam Shamil in the Caucasus region. In
the twentieth century some more modernist Muslims have called Sufism a
superstitious religion that holds back Islamic achievement in the fields of
science and technology.[58]
A
number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path
of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative
of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western
Europe, was the Swedish-born
wandering Sufi Abd al-Hadi Aqhili (also known as Ivan
Aguéli). René Guénon, the
French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and was known as
Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism
as the essence of Islam but also pointed to the universality of its message.
Other spiritualists, such as G. I. Gurdjieff, may
or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims.
Other
noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in recent years
include Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh, Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie, Idries Shah, Muzaffer Ozak, Nahid Angha and Ali Kianfar.
Currently
active Sufi academics and publishers include Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee,Waheed Ashraf, Omer Tarin and Abdal Hakim Murad.
Traditional
Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of
Sufism, and use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of
different masters and devotional lineages.[59]
On
the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier (or from the
arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower
self of every corrupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing all of
creation as the work of God, as God's active Self-disclosure or theophany.[60] This is the way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the
Sufi orders.
On
the other hand there is the order from the Signifier to His signs, from the
Artisan to His works. In this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the order with a
glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards
which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to
purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different
point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.[61]
Contemporary
scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the late Ottomanscholar Said Nursi and explicated in his vast
Qur'an commentary called the Risale-i Nur. This
approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding
that this wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete
devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the
Sufi way.[62]
Sufism
has contributed significantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectives in
many domains of intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of
"subtle centers" or centers of subtle cognition (known as Lataif-e-sitta) addresses the matter of
the awakening of spiritual intuition[63] in ways that some consider
similar to certain models of chakra in Hinduism. In general,
these subtle centers or latâ'if are thought of as faculties
that are to be purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker's wayfaring
to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a living
exponent of this tradition has been published by Muhammad Emin Er.[59]
Sufi psychology has influenced many areas
of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three
concepts. Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an imam in the Shia tradition and a respected
scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that
human beings are dominated by a lower self called the nafs, a faculty of spiritual intuition called the qalb or spiritual heart, and a
spirit or soul called ruh. These interact in various ways, producing
the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by nafs), the person of faith and
moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for
God (dominated by the ruh).[64]
Of
note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is Robert Frager, a
Sufi teacher authorized in the Khalwati Jerrahiorder. Frager
was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam
in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on Sufism and
psychology.[65]
Sufi gathering engaged in Dhikr
The
devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an acknowledged and
authorized master of the Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able
to diagnose the seeker's impediments to knowledge and pure intention in serving
God, and to prescribe to the seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his or
her maladies. The consensus among Sufi scholars is that the seeker cannot
self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of these
practices alone and without formal authorization.[66]
Prerequisites
to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its
five prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth).
Additionally, the seeker ought to be firmly grounded in supererogatory
practices known from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunna
prayers"). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the
following, a famous Hadith Qudsi:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I
love more than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never
ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him. Then,
when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through
which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he
walks.
It
is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (Aqidah),[67] and to embrace with
certainty its tenets.[68] The seeker must also, of
necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of company and
renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self.
(The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain
books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also
be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to
his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance,
envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our
ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).
Sufi
practices, while attractive to some, are not a means for gaining knowledge. The
traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge
of God is not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus,
practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead the occasion for such knowledge to be
obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a
master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far
more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person,
stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al-Ghazali)
solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[69]
Magic
has also been a part of Sufi practice, notably in India.[70] The most famous of all
Sufis, Mansur Al-Hallaj (d. 922), visited Sindh in
order to study "Indian Magic", where he accepted Hindu ideas of cosmogony and divine descent and also
seems to have believed in theTransmigration of the soul.[71] The practice of magic
intensified during the declining years of Sufism in India when the Sufi orders
grew steadily in wealth and in political influence while their spirituality
gradually declined and they concentrated on Saint worship, miracle working,
magic and superstition.
Allah as having been written on the
disciple's heart according to Qadiri Al-Muntahi order
Dhikr is the remembrance of God
commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims through a specific
devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and
aphorisms from hadith literature and the Qur'an.
More generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of meaning.[72] This includes dhikr as any
activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God. To engage in dhikr is
to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and love, or "to
seek a state of godwariness". The Qur'an refers to Muhammad as the very
embodiment of dhikr of God (65:10–11). Some types of dhikr are prescribed for
all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the prescription of a Sufi
master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every
circumstance.[73]
Some
Sufi orders[74] engage in ritualized dhikr
ceremonies, or sema.
Sema includes various forms of worship such as: recitation, singing (the most well known being
the Qawwali music of the Indian
subcontinent),instrumental
music, dance (most famously the Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance.[75]
Some
Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon Dhikr. This practice of
Dhikr is called Dhikr-e-Qulb(invocation
of God within the heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice is to visualize
the Arabic name of God, Allah, as having been written on the disciple's heart.[76]
The
practice of muraqaba can be likened to the
practices of meditation attested in many faith
communities. The word muraqaba is derived from the same
root (r-q-b) occurring as one of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqîb, meaning
"the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4:1 of the Qur'an. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or
takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires knowledge about it, and becomes
attuned to the Divine Presence, which is ever vigilant.
While
variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage
reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in
concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that
inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full
consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilahî
anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my God, you are my Goal and Your good
pleasure is what I seek". Then he brings to his heart the Name of the
Essence—Allâh—and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its
meaning, which is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains
aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying
the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace):
"Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees
you". And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level
of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be".[77]
In
popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that have achieved currency in world
cultures through Sufi influence), one common practice is to visit or make
pilgrimages to the tombs of saints, great scholars, and righteous people. This
is a particularly common practice in South Asia, where famous tombs include
those of Khoja Afāq, near Kashgar, in China; Lal
Shahbaz Qalander, in Sindh,Ali Hajwari in Lahore Bawaldin Zikrya in
Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India, and Shah Jalal inSylhet, Bangladesh. Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a
popular destination for such pious visitation is the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation
to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi
Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate theMawlid (which is usually televised
on Moroccan National television).
Sufis
and Sufism has been subject to destruction of Sufi shrines and mosques,
suppression of orders and discrimination against adherents in a number of
Muslim countries where most Sufis live. The Turkish Republican state banned all
the different Sufi orders and closed their institutions in 1925 after Sufis
opposed the new secular order. The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia
Sufi, reportedly for their lack of support for the government doctrine of
"velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that the
supreme Shiite jurist should be the
nation's political leader). In most other Muslim countries, attacks on Sufis
and especially their shrines has come from some Muslims from the more
puritanical schools of thought who believe Sufi practices such as celebration of the birthdays of
Sufi saints, and Dhikr("remembrance" of God)
ceremonies[78] are Bid‘ah or impure innovation, and
polytheistic (Shirk).[79][80]
During
the Safavid era of Iran, "both the wandering dervishes of
'low' Sufism" and "the philosopher-ulama of 'high' Sufism came under
relentless pressure" from power cleric Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d1110/1699).
Majlisi—"one of the most powerful and influential" TwelverShi'a ulama "of all time"—was
famous (for among other things), suppression of Sufism, which he and his
followers believed paid insufficient attention to Shariah law. Prior to
Majlisi's rise, Shiism and Sufism had been "closely linked".[81]
Before
the First World War there were almost 100,000
disciples of the Mevlevi order throughout the Ottoman empire. But
in 1925, as part of his desire to create a modern, western-orientated, secular
state, Atatürk banned all the different
Sufi orders and closed theirtekkes.
Pious foundations were suspended and their endowments expropriated; Sufi
hospices were closed and their contents seized; all religious titles were
abolished and dervish clothes outlawed. ... In
1937, Atatürk went even further,
prohibiting by law any form of traditional music, especially the playing of the
ney, the Sufis' reed flute.[83][84]
In
recent years, Sufi shrines, and sometimes Sufi mosques, have been damaged or
destroyed in many parts of the Muslim world. Some Sufi adherents have been
killed as well. Ali Gomaa, a Sufi
scholar and Grand Mufti of Al Azhar, has
criticized the destruction of shrines and public property as unacceptable.[85]
Since
March 2005, 209 people have been killed and 560 injured in 29 different
terrorist attacks targeting shrines devoted to Sufi saints in Pakistan,
according to data compiled by the Center for Islamic Research Collaboration and
Learning (CIRCLe).[86] At least as of 2010, the
attacks have increased each year. The attacks are generally attributed to
banned militant organizations of Deobandi or Ahl-e-Hadith(Salafi)
backgrounds.[87] (Primarily Deobandi
background according to another source—author John R. Schmidt).[88] Deobandi andBarelvi being the "two major
sub-sects" of Sunni Muslims in South Asia[89] that have clashed—sometimes
violently—since the late 1970s in Pakistan.[89] Although Barelvi are
sometimes described as Sunni Sufis,[90] whether the destruction and
death is a result of Deobandi's persecution of Sufis is disputed.[91])
In
2005, the militant organizations began attacking "symbols" of the
Barelvi community such as mosques, prominent religious leaders, and shrines.[87]
2005
·
19 March: a suicide bomber kills at least 35 people and
injured many more at the shrine of Pir Rakhel Shah in remote village of
Fatehpur located in Jhal Magsi District of Balochistan. The
dead included Shia and sunni devotees.[92]
·
27 May: As many as 20 people are killed and 100 injured
when a suicide-bomber attacks a gathering at Bari Imam Shrine during the annual
festival. The dead were mainly Shia.[93] According to the police
members of Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP) and Lashkar-i-Jhangvi (LJ) were
involved.[94] Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan
(SSP), were arrested from Thanda Pani and police seized two hand grenades from
their custody.[95][96]
2006
·
11 April: A suicide-bomber attacked a celebration of the
birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (Eid Mawlid un Nabi) in Karachi's
Nishtar Park organised by the Barelvi Jamaat
Ahle Sunnat. 57 died including almost the entire leadership of the
Sunni Tehrik; over 100 were injured.[97] Three people associated
with Lashkar-i-Jhangvi were put on trial for the
bombing.[98] (see: Nishtar
Park bombing)
2007
·
18 December: The shrine of Abdul Shakoor Malang Baba is
demolished by explosives.[99]
2008
·
March 3: ten villagers killed in a rocket attack on the
400-year-old shrine of Abu Saeed Baba. Lashkar-e-Islam takes credit.[99]
2009
·
17 February: Agha Jee shot and killed in Peshwar, the
fourth faith healer killed over several months in Pakistan. Earlier Pir
Samiullah was killed in Swat by the Taliban 16 December 2008. His dead body was
later exhumed and desecrated. Pir Rafiullah was kidnapped from Nowshera and his
beheaded body was found in Matani area of Peshawar. Pir Juma Khan was kidnapped
from Dir Lower and his beheaded body was found near Swat.[100] Faith healing is associated
with Sufi Islam in Pakistan
Pakistani faith healers are known as pirs, a
term that applies to the descendants of Sufi Muslim saints. Under Sufism, those
descendants are thought to serve as conduits to God. The popularity of pirs as
a viable healthcare alternative stems from the fact that, in much of rural
Pakistan, clinics don't exist or are dismissed as unreliable.[101]
and
suppressing it has been a cause of "extremist" Muslims there.[102]
·
March 5: The shrine of Rahman Baba, "the most famous
Sufi Pashto language poet", razed to the ground by Taliban militants
"partly because local women had been visiting the shrine".[99][103]
·
8 March: Attack on shrine of "famous Sufi poet" Rahman Baba in Peshawar. "The high
intensity device almost destroyed the grave of the Rehman Baba and the gates of
a mosque, canteen and conference hall situated in the spacious Rehman Baba
Complex. Police said the bombers had tied explosives around the pillars of the
tombs, to pull down the mausoleum".[104]
·
12 June: Mufti Sarfraz Ahmed Naeemi killed by suicide
bomber in Lahore. A leading Sunni Islamic cleric in Pakistan he was well known
for his moderate views and for publicly denouncing the Taliban’s beheadings and
suicide bombings as "un-Islamic".[106]
2010
·
22 June: Taliban militants blow up the Mian Umar Baba
shrine in Peshawar. No fatalities reported.[99][107]
·
1 July: Multiple bombings of Data Durbar Complex Sufi
shrine, in Lahore, Punjab. Two suicide bombers blew themselves up killing at
least 50 people and injuring 200 others.[99]
·
7 October: 10 people killed, 50 injured in a double
suicide bombing attack on Abdullah Shah Ghazi shrine in Karachi[108]
·
7 October: The tomb of Baba Fariddudin Ganj Shakkar in
Pakpattan is attacked. Six people were killed and 15 others injured.[99]
·
25 October: 6 killed, and at least 12 wounded in an
attack on the shrine of 12th-century saint, Baba Farid Ganj Shakar in
Pakpattan.[109]
·
14 December: Attack on Ghazi Baba shrine in Peshawar, 3
killed.[110]
2011
·
3 February: Remote-controlled device is triggered as food
is being distributed among the devotees outside the Baba Haider Saieen shrine
in Lahore, Punjab. At least three people were killed and 27 others injured.[99]
·
3 April: Twin suicide attack leaves 42 dead and almost a
hundred injured during the annual Urs festival at shrine of 13th century Sufi
saint Sakhi Sarwar (a.k.a. Ahmed Sultan) in the Dera Ghazi Khan district of
Punjab province. Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) claims responsibility for the
attack.[99][111]
2012
·
21 June: Bomb kills three people and injures 31 others at
the Pinza Piran shrine in Hazarkhwani in (Peshwar). "A
police official said the bomb was planted in a donkey-cart that went off in the
afternoon when a large number of people were visiting the popular shrine".[112]
In
this predominately Muslim, traditionally Sufi region,[113] some six places of worship
have been either completely or partially burnt in "mysterious fires"
in several months leading up to November 2012.[114] The most prominent victim
of damage was the Dastageer Sahib Sufi shrine in Srinagar which burned in June 2012,
injuring 20.[115] While investigators have so
far found no sign of arson, according to journalist Amir Rana the fires have
occurred within the context of a surging Salafi movement which preaches that
"Kashmiri tradition of venerating the tombs and relics of saints is outside
the pale of Islam".[114]
mourners
outside the burning shrine cursed the Salafis for creating an atmosphere
of hate, [while] some Salafis began posting incendiary messages on Facebook,
terming the destruction of the shrine a "divine act of God".[114]
Under
the Al-Shabab rule in Somali, Sufi ceremonies were banned[116] and shrines destroyed.[117] As the power of Al-Shabab
has waned, however, Sufi ceremonies are said to have "re-emerged".[113]
In
the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called "the city of 333
saints", UNESCO reports that as many as
half of the city's shrines "have been destroyed in a display of
fanaticism", as of July 2012. A spokesman for Ansar Dine has stated that "the
destruction is a divine order", and that the group had plans to destroy
every single Sufi shrine in the city, "without exception".[118] In Gao and Kidal, as well as Timbuktu, Salafi Islamists
have destroyed musical instruments and driven musicians (music is not Haraam under Sufi Islam) into
"economic exile" away from Mali.[119]
International
Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda described the Islamists' actions
as a "war crime".[120][121]
A
May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious endowments) of centuries old
Sufi dhikr gatherings (devoted to the
remembrance of God, and including dancing and religious songs) has been
described as a "another victory for extreme Salafi thinking at the expense
of Egypt's moderate Sufism". Clashes followed at Cairo's Al-Hussein Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab
mosques between members of Sufi orders and security forces who forced them to
evacuate the two shrines.[78] In 2009 the moulid of
al-Sayyida Zeinab, the prophet's Muhammad's granddaughter, was banned
ostensibly over concern over the spread of swine flu[122] but also at the urging of
Salafis.[78]
According
to Gaber Qassem, deputy of the Sufi Orders, approximately 14 shrines have been
violated in Egypt since the January 2011 revolution. According to Sheikh Tarek El-Rifai,
head of the Rifai Sufi Order, a number of Salafis have prevented Sufi prayers
in Al-Haram. Sheikh Rifai said that the order's lawyer has filed a report at
the Al-Haram police station to that effect. In early April 2011, a Sufi march
from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein Mosque was followed by a massive protest
before Al-Hussein Mosque, "expressing outrage at the destruction" of
Sufi shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt, led by Grand Imam of
Al-Azhar Ahmed El-Tayeb, has also renounced the attacks on the shrines.[80] According to the Muslim
Brotherhood website ikhwanweb.com, in 2011 "a memorandum was submitted to
the Armed Forces" citing 20 "encroachments" on Sufi shrines.[85]
Following the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi,
several Sufi religious sites in Libya were deliberately destroyed or damaged.[123] In the weeks leading up to
September 2012, "armed groups motivated by their religious views"
attacked Sufi religious sites across the country, "destroying several
mosques and tombs of Sufi religious leaders and scholars".[124] Perpetrators were described
as "groups that have a strict Islamic ideology where they believe that
graves and shrines must be desecrated." Libyan Interior Minister Fawzi
Abdel A'al, was quoted as saying, "If all shrines in Libya are destroyed
so we can avoid the death of one person [in clashes with security forces], then
that is a price we are ready to pay."[124]
In
September 2012, three people were killed in clashes between residents of Rajma
(50 km south-east of Benghazi) and "Salafist Islamists" trying
to destroy a Sufi shrine in Rajma, the Sidi al-Lafi mausoleum.[125] In August 2012 the United
Nations cultural agencyUnesco urged Libyan authorities to
protect Sufi mosques and shrines from attacks by Islamic hardliners "who
consider the traditional mystical school of Islam heretical". The attacked
have "wrecked mosques in at least three cities and desecrated many graves
of revered Sufi scholars".[126]
In
an article on the rise of Salafism in Tunisia, the media site Al-Monitor reported that 39 Sufi
shrines were destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011 revolution to
January 2013.[127]
Said
Atsayev—also known as Sheikh Said Afandi al-Chirkavi—a prominent 74-year-old
Sufi Muslim spiritual leader in Dagestan Russia, was killed by a suicide
bombing August 28, 2012 along with six of his followers. His murder follows
"similar religiously-motivated killings" in Dagestan and other
regions of ex-Soviet Central Asia, targeting religious leaders—not necessarily
Sufi—who are hostile to violent jihad. Afandi had survived previous attempts on
his life and was reportedly in the process of negotiating a peace agreement
between the Sufis and Salafis.[128] [129][130]
The
Book "Mystic Regimes. Sufism and the State in Iran, from the late Qajar
era to the Islamic Republic" by Professor Matthijs
van den Bos discusses in detail the status of Sufism in
Iran in the 19th and 20th century.[131] According to Seyed Mostafa Azmayesh, an expert on Sufism and the
representative of the Ni'matullāhī order outside Iran, a campaign against the
Sufis in Iran (or at least Shia Sufis) began in 2005 when several books were
published arguing that because Sufis follow their own spiritual leaders do not
believe in the Islamic state's principle of "velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that the
supreme Shiite jurist should be the
nation's political leader), Sufis should be treated as second-class citizens.
They should not be allowed to have government jobs, and if they already have
them, should be identified and fired.[132]
Since
2005 the Ni'matullāhī order—Iran's largest Sufi
order—have come under increasing state pressure. Three of their houses of
worship have been demolished. Officials accused the Sufis of not having
building permits and of narcotics possession—charges the Sufis reject.[132]
The
government of Iran is considering an outright
ban on Sufism, according to the 2009 Annual Report of the United States Commission
on International Religious Freedom.[133] It also reports:
In
February 2009, at least 40 Sufis in Isfahan were arrested after
protesting the destruction of a Sufi place of worship; all were released within
days.
In
January, Jamshid Lak, a Gonabadi Dervish from the Nematollahi Sufi order was
flogged 74 times after being convicted in 2006 of slander following his public
allegation of ill-treatment by a Ministry of Intelligence official.
In
late December 2008, after the closure of a Sufi place of worship, authorities
arrested without charge at least six members of the Gonabadi Dervishes on Kish Island and confiscated their books
and computer equipment; their status is unknown.
In
November 2008, Amir Ali Mohammad Labaf was sentenced to a five-year prison
term, 74 lashes, and internal exile to the southeastern town of Babak for spreading lies, based
on his membership in the Nematollahi Gonabadi Sufi order.
In
October, at least seven Sufi Muslims in Isfahan, and five others in Karaj, were arrested because of their
affiliation with the Nematollahi Gonabadi Sufi order; they remain in detention.
In
November 2007, clashes in the western city of Borujerd between security forces and
followers of a mystic Sufi order resulted in dozens of injuries and the arrests
of approximately 180 Sufi Muslims. The clashes occurred after authorities began
bulldozing a Sufi monastery. It is unclear how many remain in detention or if
any charges have been brought against those arrested. During the past year,
there were numerous reports of Shi'a clerics and prayer leaders, particularly
in Qom,
denouncing Sufism and the activities of Sufi Muslims in the country in both
sermons and public statements.[133]
Not
all Sufis in Iran have been subject to government pressure. Sunni dervish
orders—such as the Qhaderi dervishes—in the Sunni-populated parts of the
country are thought by some to be seen as allies of the government against
Al-Qaeda.[132]
Scholars
and adherents of Sufism sometimes describe Sufism in terms of a threefold
approach to God as explained by a tradition (hadîth)
attributed to Muhammad,[citation needed]"The Canon is my
word, the order is my deed, and the truth is my interior state".[citation needed] Sufis believe the sharia (exoteric
"canon"), tariqa (esoteric
"order") and haqiqa ("truth") are
mutually interdependent.[134]
The tariqa, the 'path' on which the
mystics walk, has been defined as[weasel words] 'the path which comes out
of the sharia, for the main road is
called branch, the path,tariq.'[clarification needed] No mystical experience can
be realized if the binding injunctions of the sharia are not followed
faithfully first. The tariqa however, is narrower and more difficult to walk.
It
leads the adept, called salik or "wayfarer", in
his sulûk or "road" through
different stations (maqâmât) until he reaches his goal, the perfect tawhîd, the existential
confession that God is One.[135] Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiuddeen
Ibn Arabi mentions, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to
be able to guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law
– even if he manifests miracles that stagger the mind – asserting that his shortcoming
is a special dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such
a person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted
with the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred
Law are preserved. (Jami' karamat al-awliya')".[136]
The Amman Message, a
detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in Amman, and adopted by the Islamic world's
political and temporal leaderships at the Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit at Mecca in December
2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly assemblies including the
International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006, specifically
recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam—however the definition of
Sufism can vary drastically between different traditions (what may be intended
is simple tazkiah as opposed to the various
manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world).[137]
The
literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside
observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct
reference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sufi
treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry
refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirect
language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in
Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part
of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the Sharia and discussed Sufism as a
method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly.
This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.
For
these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars
and Sufism is complex and a range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has
been the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped
its propagation while other scholars opposed it. W. Chittick explains the position of
Sufism and Sufis this way:
In
short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the
normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who
held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct
understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology,
philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human
existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing
the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis.
The
traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the role of Sufism as
a spiritual discipline within Islam. Therefore, the Sharia (traditional Islamic law)
and the Sunnah are seen as crucial for any
Sufi aspirant. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the
famous Sufi masters of the past Caliphates were experts in Sharia and were renowned as people
with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in
courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully
comprehend and practice Sufism one must be an observant Muslim.
"Neo-Sufism"
and "universal Sufism" are terms used to denote forms of Sufism that
do not require adherence to Shariah, or a Muslim faith. The terms are not
always accepted by those it is applied to. The Universal Sufism movement was founded by Inayat Khan, teaches
the essential unity of all faiths, and accepts members of all creeds. Sufism Reoriented is an offshoot of Khan's
Western Sufism influenced by the syncretistic teacher Meher Baba. TheGolden Sufi Center exists in England, Switzerland and the United States. It
was founded byLlewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the work of his
teacher Irina Tweedie,
herself a disciple of the Hindu Naqshbandi Sufi Bhai Sahib. The
Afghan-Scottish teacher Idries Shah has been described as a
neo-Sufi by the Gurdjieffian James Moore.[138] Other Western Sufi
organisations include the Sufi Foundation of America and the International Association of Sufism.
Western
Sufi practice may differ from traditional forms, for instance having
mixed-gender meetings and less emphasis on the Qur'an.
A manuscript of Sufi Islamic theology,Shams al-Ma'arif (translated as "The
Book of the Sun of Gnosis") was written by theAlgerian Sufi master Ahmad al-Buni during the 12th century
Abul Hasan al-Shadhili (died 1258 CE), the founder
of the Shadhiliyya Sufi order, introduced dhikr jahri (The method of remembering
Allah through loud means). Sufi orders generally preach to deny oneself and to
destroy the ego-self (nafs) and its worldly desires.
This is sometimes characterized as the "Order of Patience-Tariqus
Sabr". In contrast, Imam Shadhili taught that his followers need not
abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God has
bestowed upon them.[139]This
notion, known as the "Order of Gratitude-Tariqush Shukr", was
espoused by Imam Shadhili. Imam Shadhili gave eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies) to his followers
out of which the notable Hizbul Bahr[140] is recited worldwide even
today.
Bayazid Bastami (died 874 CE) is considered
to be "of the six bright stars in the firmament of the Prophet", and
a link in the Golden Chain of the Naqshbandi Tariqah. He is regarded as
the first mystic to openly speak of the annihilation (fanā') of the base self
in the Divine, whereby the mystic becomes fully absorbed to the point of
becoming unaware of himself or the objects around him. Every existing thing
seems to vanish, and he feels free of every barrier that could stand in the way
of his viewing the Remembered One. In one of these states, Bastami cried out:
"Praise to Me, for My greatest Glory!" His belief in the unity of all
religions became apparent when asked the question: "How does Islam view
other religions?" His reply was "All are vehicles and a path to God's
Divine Presence".
Muhyiddin
Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-'Arabi) AH 561-
AH 638 (July 28, 1165 – November 10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most
important Sufi masters, although he never founded any order (tariqa).
His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been
studied within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid(Divine Unity), though
because of their recondite nature they were often only
given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching became known as the
school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He
himself considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed
the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy is that 'you should never
ever abandon your servanthood ('ubudiyya), and that there may never be
in your soul a longing for any existing thing'.[141]
Junayd Baghdadi (830–910 CE) was one of the
great early Sufis, and is a central figure in the golden chain of many Sufi
orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of
God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During
the trial of al-Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded
his fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa: "From the outward appearance
he is to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God knows
better". He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifa—i.e., the leader of
the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.
Mansur al-Hallaj (died 922 CE) is renowned
for his claim "Ana-l-Haqq" (I am The Truth). His refusal to recant
this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, led to a
long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad prison, before being
tortured and publicly dismembered on March 26, 922. He is still revered by
Sufis for his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant. It
is said that during his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide
of those who are passing through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic,
enlarge my heresy".[142]
A choreographed Sufi
performance on Friday at Sudan.
Sufi
mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and
especially its orientalist scholars.[143] Figures like Rumi have become well known in
the United States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form
of Islam.[143]
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim,
Germany, which works towards the integration of Europeand Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly
suited for interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in
democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of
tolerance and humanism—nondogmatic,
flexible and non-violent.[144]
Both
Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. However, there is evidence that Sufism did
influence the development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. A
great influence was exercised by Sufism upon the ethical writings of Jews in the Middle Ages[citation needed]. In the first writing of
this kind, we see "Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub", Duties
of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda.
This book was translated by Judah ibn Tibbon intoHebrew under the title "Ḥovot ha-Levavot".[145]
The
precepts prescribed by the Torah number 613 only; those
dictated by the intellect are innumerable.
This
was precisely the argument used by the Sufis against their adversaries, the Ulamas. The arrangement of the book seems to
have been inspired by Sufism. Its ten sections correspond to the ten stages
through which the Sufi had to pass in order to attain that true and passionate
love of God which is the aim and goal of all ethical self-discipline. A
considerable amount of Sufi ideas entered the Jewish mainstream[citation needed] through Bahya ibn Paquda's
work, which remains one of the most popular ethical treatises in Judaism[citation needed].
It
is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections which
treat of the same subjects as those treated in the "Ḥovot ha-Lebabot" and
which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Bab
al-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'"; "Bab
al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom
he calls Perushim. However, the author of
the Ḥovot ha-Levavot did not go so far as to
approve of the asceticism of the Sufis, although he showed a marked
predilection for their ethical principles.
The
Jewish writer Abraham bar Ḥiyya teaches the asceticism of the Sufis. His
distinction with regard to the observance of Jewish law by various classes of
men is essentially a Sufic theory. According to it there are four principal
degrees of human perfection or sanctity; namely:
1.
of "Shari'ah", i.e., of strict obedience to all ritual laws of Islam, such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage,
almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is the lowest degree of worship, and is
attainable by all
2.
of Ṭariqah, which is accessible only
to a higher class of men who, while strictly adhering to the outward or
ceremonial injunctions of religion, rise to an inward perception of mental
power and virtue necessary for the nearer approach to the Divinity
3.
of "Ḥaḳikah", the degree
attained by those who, through continuous contemplation and inward devotion,
have risen to the true perception of the nature of the visible and invisible;
who, in fact, have recognized the Godhead, and through this knowledge have
succeeded in establishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
4.
of the "Ma'arifah", in which state man communicates directly with the
Deity.
Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jewish
philosopher Maimonides, believed
that Sufi practices and doctrines continue the tradition of the Biblical
prophets. See Sefer HaMaspik, "HaPrishut", Chapter 11 ("Ha-ma’avak")
s.v. hitbonen eifo bi-masoret mufla’ah zu, citing the Talmudic explanation of
Jeremiah 13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelberg’s translation,
"The Way of Serving God" (Feldheim), p. 429 and above,
p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10 ("Ikkuvim"), s.v. va-halo
yode’a atah; in "The Way of Serving God", p. 371. There are
other such references in Rabbi Abraham’s writings, as well.> He introduced
into the Jewish prayer such practices as reciting God's names (dhikr)[citation needed].
Abraham
Maimuni's principal work is originally composed in Judeo-Arabic and entitled "כתאב
כפיא אלעאבדין" Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn ("A Comprehensive
Guide for the Servants of God"). From the extant surviving portion it is
conjectured that Maimuni's treatise was three times as long as his father's
Guide for the Perplexed. In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for,
and affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to foster a
Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least a century, and he is rightly
considered the founder of this pietistic school, which was centered in Egypt.
The
followers of this path, which they called, interchangeably, Hasidism (not to
confuse with the latter Jewish Hasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf),
practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep deprivation. The
Jewish Sufis maintained their ownbrotherhood, guided
by a religious leader—like a Sufi sheikh.[146]
Abraham
Maimuni's two sons, Obadyah and David, continued to lead this Jewish-Sufi
brotherhood. Obadyah Maimonides wrote Al-Mawala Al Hawdiyya ("The Treatise of the
Pool")—an ethico-mystical manual based on the typically Sufi comparison of
the heart to a pool that must be cleansed before it can experience the Divine.
The
Maimonidean legacy extended right through to the 15th century with the 5th generation
of Maimonidean Sufis, David ben Joshua Maimonides, who wrote Al-Murshid ila al-Tafarrud (The Guide to Detachment),
which includes numerous extracts of Suhrawardi'sKalimat
at-Tasawwuf.[citation needed]
In Hideous
Kinky (1998), Julia (Kate Winslet)
travels to Morocco to explore Sufism and a
journey to self-discovery.
Bab'Aziz (2005), a film by Tunisian director Nacer Khemir, draws
heavily on the Sufi tradition, containing quotes from Sufi poets such as Rumi and depicting an ecstatic
Sufi dance.
Friday evening ceremony at
Dargah Salim Chisti, India.
Abida Parveen, a
Pakistani Sufi singer is one of the foremost exponents of Sufi music, together
with Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are considered the finest
Sufi vocalists of the modern era. Sanam Marvi another Pakistani singer
has recently gained recognition for her Sufi vocal performances.
A. R. Rahman, the
Oscar-winning Indian musician, has several compositions which draw inspiration
from the Sufi genre; examples are the filmi qawwalis Khwaja Mere Khwaja in the film Jodhaa Akbar, Arziyan in the film Delhi 6 and Kun Faya Kun in the film Rockstar.
Bengali
singer Lalan Fakir and Bangladesh's national
poet Kazi Nazrul Islam scored several Sufi songs.
Junoon, a band from Pakistan, created
the genre of Sufi rock by combining elements of
modern hard rock and traditional folk music
with Sufi poetry.
In
2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Sufi rock song
called "Bulla
Ki Jaana", which became a chart-topper in India and Pakistan.[147][148]
Madonna, on her 1994 record Bedtime Stories, sings a song called
"Bedtime Story" that discusses achieving a high
unconsciousness level. The video for the song shows an ecstatic Sufi ritual
with many dervishes dancing, Arabic calligraphy and some other Sufi elements.
In her 1998 song "Bittersweet", she recites Rumi's poem by the same
name. In her 2001 Drowned World Tour, Madonna sang the song "Secret"
showing rituals from many religions, including a Sufi dance.
Singer/songwriter Loreena McKennitt's
record The
Mask and Mirror (1994) has a song called
"The Mystic's Dream" that is influenced by Sufi music and poetry. The
band mewithoutYou has made references to Sufi
parables, including the name of their album It's All Crazy! It's All False!
It's All a Dream! It's Alright (2009). Tori Amos makes a reference to Sufis
in her song "Cruel".
The
Persian poet Rumi has become one of the most
widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the interpretative
translations published by Coleman Barks.[149] Elif Safak's novel The Forty Rules of Love tells the story of Rumi
becoming a disciple of the Persian Sufi dervish Shams Tabrizi.
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