Monday, December 28, 2020

The Mongol invasions of Russia and Eastern Europe in 1223 CE and then 1237 CE and 1242 CE

The Mongol invasions of Russia and Eastern Europe occurred first with a brief sortie in 1223 CE and then again in a much larger campaign between 1237 CE and 1242 CE. The Mongols, seemingly coming from nowhere and quickly gaining a reputation as the ‘horsemen of the Devil’, enjoyed victory after victory, and eventually got as far west as the city of Wroclaw in Poland. Great cities like Tbilisi, Kiev and Vladimir fell and, reaching the Danube river, they sacked the Hungarian cities of Buda, Pest, and Gran (Esztergom). Neither the Russians or the major European powers could organise themselves sufficiently to adequately meet the five-pronged attack the Mongols had launched or deal with their swift cavalry, incendiary-firing catapults and terror tactics. The rest of Eastern and Central Europe was only saved by the death of Ogedei Khan (r. 1229-1241 CE) which caused the Mongols to retreat. Despite the massive death and destruction there were some lasting cultural benefits to the invasion as the two worlds of east and west finally met. Western travellers began to visit East Asia, a region that had hitherto been a legendary land of monsters - a view the Chinese also held in regard to Europe. With the Mongol invasion of Europe, the world had become a lot more violent and just that bit smaller.

The Mongols Sack Suzdal
by Unknown Artist (Public Domain)

Ogedei Khan

Ogedei Khan became ruler of the Mongol Empire in 1229 CE, inheriting from his father Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE) an impressive swathe of Asia. The new khan was faced with two major problems at the outset of his reign: first, the imperial treasury was empty and riches were badly needed to keep the Mongol army loyal, and second, the Mongols had

The Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE), The descendants of Genghis each ruled a part of the empire - the four khanates - the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China (1271-1368 CE), established by Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1279 CE).

The Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE) eventually dominated Asia from the Black Sea to the Korean peninsula following the initial conquests of its founder Genghis Khan (aka Chinggis, r. 1206-1227 CE), the first Great Khan or ‘universal ruler’ of the Mongol peoples. Genghis forged the empire by uniting the nomadic tribes of the Asian steppe and creating a devastatingly effective army based on fast, light, and highly coordinated cavalry. Expert horsemen and archers, the Mongols proved unstoppable, defeating armies in Iran, Russia, Eastern Europe, China, and many other places.

The descendants of Genghis each ruled a part of the empire - the four khanates - the most powerful of which was the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China (1271-1368 CE), established by Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1279 CE). Eventually, the Mongols became part of the sedentary societies they had so easily overwhelmed and many converted from traditional shamanism to Tibetan Buddhism or Islam. This was a general symptom of the Mongols not only losing part of their cultural identity but also, too, their famed military prowess, as the four khanates all succumbed to damaging dynastic disputes and the armies of their rivals. Although not famed for creating any lasting architectural wonders or political institutions, the Mongols did make the significant contribution to world culture of finally connecting the eastern and western worlds via expanded trade routes, diplomatic embassies and the movement of missionaries and travellers from Eurasia to the Far East.

TENGRI, THE 'BLUE SKY' GOD, WAS THOUGHT BY TRIBAL ELITES TO HAVE GIVEN THE MONGOL PEOPLE A DIVINE RIGHT TO RULE THE ENTIRE WORLD.

Nomads of the Steppe

The Mongols were pastoral nomads of the Asian steppe who herded sheep, goats, horses, camels, and yaks. These tribes moved according to the seasons and lived in temporary camps of circular felt tents or yurts (gers). The climate of Mongolia is often harsh and, reflecting this, clothing was warm, durable, and practical. Felt from sheep’s wool and animal furs were the most common material to make clothing which was remarkably similar for both men and women: heelless boots, baggy trousers, a long jacket-robe (deel) worn with a leather belt, and a conical hat with earflaps, while underclothes were made from cotton or silk.

Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, Temür Khan, sixth Great Khan, Öljeitü, or Emperor Qinming Guangxiao, Temür (which means "blessed iron Khan" in the Mongolian language) ruled as the second emperor of China's Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty from 1294, until his death in 1307.

Temür Khan

Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty Temür Khan

Full Name: Temür Öljeytü Khan
Profession: Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty

Nationality: Mongolian

Also known as Öljeitü, or Emperor Qinming Guangxiao, Temür (which means "blessed iron Khan" in the Mongolian language) ruled as the second emperor of China's Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty from 1294, until his death in 1307.

Temür was also the nominal sixth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire around the time of the empire's dissolution into four separate khanates.

Temür's reign was largely successful, despite having to fight off rebellions in South China and Korea, challenges to his throne, and large-scale corruption within his empire.

Temür was posthumously given the temple name Chengzong, which means “Accomplished Ancestor”.

Born: October 15, 1265
Birthplace: Khanbaliq (Dadu or modern day Beijing), Mongol Empire (Yuan Dynasty)
Star Sign: Libra

Died: February 10, 1307 (aged 41)

The 9 Parts of Speech

Read about each part of speech below and get started practicing identifying each.

Noun

Nouns are a person, place, thing, or idea. They can take on a myriad of roles in a sentence, from the subject of it all to the object of an action. They are capitalized when they're the official name of something or someone, called proper nouns in these cases. Examples: pirate, Caribbean, ship, freedom, Captain Jack Sparrow.

Pronoun

Pronouns stand in for nouns in a sentence. They are more generic versions of nouns that refer only to people. Examples: I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who, which, anybody, ourselves.

Verb

Verbs are action words that tell what happens in a sentence. They can also show a sentence subject's state of being (is, was). Verbs change form based on tense (present, past) and count distinction (singular or plural). Examples: sing, dance, believes, seemed, finish, eat, drink, be, became