INDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

INDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE INTRODUCTION

India is a multilingual country. The 1961 Census, which can legitimately be considered most authentic in this respect, recorded a total of 1,652 languages belonging to four (now five, with the addition of Andamanese and Nicobarese family, see Abbi 2006) different language families in this country. The major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages are spoken by 75% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by southern Indians. Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman. According to 2001 census there are 234 mother tongues , more than 10,000 speakers for each language. Over 87 languages are used in the print media, 71 languages are used on the radio, and the administration of the country is conducted in 13 different languages. Yet many languages have disappeared. People’s Linguistic Survey of India under the supervision of Ganesh Devy (since 2010) identified 860 distinct languages in India. The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language. The official languages of the Union Government of the Republic of India are Hindi in the Devanagari script and English as an associate language. The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages at present, which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. Eighth Schedule [Articles 344(1) and 351] Languages 1. Assamese. 2. Bengali. 3. Bodo. 4. Dogri. 5. Gujarati. 6. Hindi. 7. Kannada. 8. Kashmiri. 9. Konkani. 10. Maithili. 11. Malayalam. 12. Manipuri. Indian Languages 13. Marathi. 14. Nepali. 15. Odia 16. Punjabi. 17. Sanskrit. 18. Santhali. 19. Sindhi. 20. Tamil. 21. Telugu. 22. Urdu

In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of classical language to Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia. These languages are also used for day to day discourse. Multiplicity of languages in India does not act as a barrier in communication; instead variability in linguistic behaviour facilitates communication. Contemporary research has shown that multilingualism is an asset for language learning, scholastic achievement, cognitive growth and social tolerance. The significance of Hindi as our official language and as a major link language of a substantial part of the country can hardly be overstated. Considering the importance of English as our window to the world and as a language of higher education, knowledge and social mobility, most states now introduce English early in school. Social harmony in a country as diverse as India is only possible through mutual respect for each other’s language and culture. Such respect can only be built on knowledge. Ignorance breeds fear, hatred, and intolerance and this is indeed a major barrier to the building up a national identity and responsible citizenship. With each State having one dominant language, there is bound to develop a certain amount of ethnocentric attitude and linguistic chauvinism. This not only hampers the free movement of people and ideas but also imposes restrictions on creativity, innovation, and diffusion and retards the modernization of the society. Therefore multilingualism is encouraged in India.

LANGUAGE AND POWER

In spite of the fact that all languages as abstract systems or subsystems are equal, the complex ways in which history, economics, sociology, and politics interact with language, some languages become

Climate in Switzerland

Climate in Switzerland 

Climate:

From a climate point of view, Switzerland is located in a transition zone. In the west, there is a strong influence of the Atlantic ocean. Winds bring a lot of moisture into Switzerland and cause rainfall. In the east, there is an almost continental climate, with lower temperatures and less precipitation. On the other hand, the alps - which run from east to west - act as a climatic divide. South of the alps, there is an almost Mediterranean climate, with significantly higher temperatures but also a lot of precipitation.

Generally speaking, spring is wet and cool, April is well known for fast and often changing weather conditions. Summer is supposed to be warm and dry with maximum temperature up to 35°C (95°F). The temperature depends primarily on the elevation, the zero line (0°C or 32°F) may raise as high as 4000 meters above sea level (13125 feet). Fall is usually dry, but cool. The temperature will drop significantly in September or October, with the zero line around 2000 meter above sea level (6560 feet). Winter is supposed to be cold and dry. The temperature may drop below 0°C everywhere in Switzerland, especially at night. In the alps, they usually get a lot of snow, but even at lower elevations, there is a good chance that they will get a foot of snow every now and then.

RIVERS IN SWITZERLAND

RIVERS IN SWITZERLAND 

Rivers:

The rivers of Switzerland lead to three different seas: The Rhein with its tributaries Aare and Thur drains 67.7% of the water into the North Sea. The Rhone and the Ticino (a tributary to the river Po in Italy) drain 18% into the Mediterranean Sea. The Inn (a tributary to the river Donau in Germany/Austria) drains 4.4% into the Black Sea.

The major rivers:

Name	Length within Switzerland	Drain area	Source	Ends in or leaves Switzerland in
Rhein	375 km	27963 km²	Oberalp (Vorderrhein) & San Bernardino (Hinterrhein)	Leaves in Basel
Aare	295 km	17779 km²	Grimsel	Flows into Rhein near Koblenz, AG
Rhone	264 km	6947 km²	Grimsel	Leaves in Geneva
Inn	104 km	1792 km²	Maloja	Leaves in Vinadi (Engadin), GR
Thur	125 km	1724 km²	Toggenburg	Flows into Rhein near Ellikon, ZH
Ticino	91 km	1616 km²	Nufenen	Flows into Lago Maggiore, TI and leaves the lake in Italy

LAKES IN SWITZERLAND

LAKES IN SWITZERLAND 

Lakes:

Switzerland hosts many lakes, from the large Lake Geneva to hundreds of tiny little lakes in the mountains. There are also many dammed-up lakes, mainly to drive water turbines of power plants.

The largest lakes:

Name	Canton(s)	Size	Average elevation of the surface	Max. depth
Lac Léman (Lake Geneva)	GE, VD, VS & France	584 km²	372 m	310 m
Bodensee	SG, TG, Austria & Germany	539 km²	396 m	252 m
Neuenburgersee	BE, FR, NE & VD	218 km²	429 m	153 m
Lago Maggiore	TI & Italy	212 km²	193 m	372 m
Vierwaldstätter See	LU, NW, OW, SZ & UR	114 km²	434 m	214 m
Zürichsee	SG, SZ & ZH	88 km²	406 m	143 m
Luganersee	TI & Italy	49 km²	270 m	288 m
Thunersee	BE	48 km²	558 m	215 m
Bielersee	BE, NE	40 km²	429 m	74 m
Zugersee	LU, SZ & ZG	38 km²	414 m	97 m
Brienzersee	BE	30 km²	564 m	260 m
Walensee	GL & SG	24 km²	419 m	144 m
Murtensee	FR & VD	23 km²	429 m	45 m

Geography of Switzerland

1. Dimensions:

Basic facts:

• Area: 41285 km² (approx. 10'201'746 acres or 15'940 square miles)
• Boundary: 1858 km (1150 miles)
  • Germany: 346 km (215 miles)
  • France: 572 km (355 miles)
  • Italy: 734 km (456 miles)
  • Austria: 165 km (103 miles)
  • Liechtenstein: 41 km (25 miles)
• Largest extension north - south: 220 km (137 miles)
• Largest extension west - east: 348 km (216 miles)
• Most northern dimension: Oberbargen (N 47° 48' 35")
• Most eastern dimension: Piz Chavalatsch (E 10° 29' 36")
• Most southern dimension: Chiasso (N 45° 49' 08")
• Most western dimension: Chancy (E 5° 57' 24")
• Highest elevation: Mount Monte Rosa ("Dufourspitze"), 4634 m.a.s (15200 feet)
• Lowest elevation: Lake Maggiore ("Lago Maggiore"), 193 m.a.s (633 feet)
• Time Zone: Central Europe (GMT +1 hour)

Switzerland is divided in three major geographical areas:

• Alps ("Alpen"): 60%
• Middle land ("Mittelland"): 30%
• Jura: 10%

Culture in Switzerland

Food:

General information about food and some recipes.

Languages:

Information about the four languages spoken in Switzerland plus translations of some words and phrases.

Swiss Anthem:

The lyrics and the sound of the Swiss Anthem.

Education in Switzerland

1. Introduction:

Since Switzerland has no natural resources, education and knowledge have become very important resources. Therefore Switzerland claims to have one of the world's best education systems. Because the cantons are responsible for educational services (kindergarten, schools, universities), education may vary significantly between cantons. For example, some cantons start to teach the first foreign language at fourth grade, while others start at seventh grade. This can turn moving with children between cantons into a nightmare.

In Switzerland, most children go to public schools. Private schools usually are expensive and people tend to think that students of private schools probably didn't make it at the public school. Public schools include "Kindergarten", "Volksschule" (elementary school), "Gymnasium" (secondary school) and "Universitäten" (universities). Most municipalities provide kindergarten, primary and secondary schools. Most cantons provide at least one secondary school. There are eleven universities in Switzerland, nine are run by cantons, two are run by the confederation.

After elementary school, kids may either choose to go to secondary school or to start an apprenticeship. In the later case, after finishing the apprenticeship, it is still possible to start an academic career at either a secondary school or a so called "Fachhochschule" (FH) (university of applied sciences).

2. Schools:

In Switzerland, every child must attend at least the elementary school. Our country provides various schools at different levels. Because the cantons are responsible for the educational system, the names, the

Moscow State University of Printing Arts Information for Admission of Foreigners

Moscow State University of Printing Arts General information

Full name	Moscow State University of Printing Arts
Ministry	Ministry of education and science of the Russian Federation
Organizational and legal form	Federal State budget institution of higher education
Established in	1930 г.
Address (post box)	2 A, Pryanishnikova Street, 127550 Moscow, Russia
City	Moscow
Phone(s)	+7 (499) 976 1470
Fax(es)	+7 (499) 976 06 35
Web	www.mgup.ru
Rector	ANTIPOV Konstantin Valeryevich

Admission Requirements in Russia

Admission Requirements in Russia 

Traditionally, a diploma granting admission to university level higher education institutions may be earned at institutions offering secondary (complete) general education and non-university level higher education. 

Admission to higher education establishments is competitive. The selection is based on entrance examinations, school leaving certificates, interviews, etc. The entrance examinations are the major component of the selection procedure. The number and the list of entrance tests are stipulated by the admission regulations of given educational institutions. The subjects of the entrance examinations are set by the individual institutions according to the requirements of the faculties to which admission is sought. Following the decree of the State Committee for Higher Education of 26 April 1993, the subjects and their contents that are selected for entrance examinations should correspond to the subjects and their contents taught in secondary general schools. Higher education institutions, therefore, may choose subjects for the entrance examinations from the following list: History, Social Sciences, Russian Language and Literature, Foreign Languages, Mathematics,

ADMISSION OF OVERSEAS STUDENTS IN EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS OF RUSSIA

ADMISSION OF OVERSEAS STUDENTS IN EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS OF RUSSIA

INTRODUCTION.
Legislation of the Russian Federation offers education opportunities for non-residents of Russia. Being Russian citizens, they may be admitted to state educational establishments at the budget expenses according to the general procedure as any Russian citizen who lives in Russia. Applicants not admitted to the budgetary vacancies as a result of competition, may be admitted on commercial basis to both state and private educational establishments. 

Besides, the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia and the Government of Moscow annually allocate grants for training in state higher educational institutions for most talented young people from both CIS and non-CIS countries. Grants are also allocated by Russian embassies abroad for applicants participating in the competition under recommendations of compatriot organizations. Winners of annual Olympiads for children of Russian schools in CIS and Baltic states enjoy privileges.

The most accessible opportunity for training according to Russian educational programs is distant training. Well developed are network and television methods of remote training; electronic and multimedia textbooks, computer training programs and techniques for their use are created.

Foreign documents on education, when brought to the Russian Federation, should undergo the procedure of recognition (nostrification) for their further use.

The Treaty Of Hudaybiyah

The Treaty Of Hudaybiyah 

Ouraysh had tried to destroy Islam but had failed. The number of Muslims grew and their armies increased from three hundred at the battle of Badr, seven hundred at the battle of "Uhud, to three thousand at the battle of the Trench. After the annual fast of Ramadan, the Prophet (pbuh) had a dream, which indicated that the Muslims should go to Mecca for the pilgrimage. One thousand and four hundred Muslims got ready to go with him on the Lesser Pilgrimage called 'the `Umra'. They dressed in white and went unarmed to show Quraysh that they had come to make the pilgrimage and not to fight. When Quraysh heard that the Prophet (pbuh) was on his way, they sent troops with Khalid Ibn al-Walid to stop the Muslims from entering the city. To avoid meeting this small army the Prophet (pbuh) changed his route and led the men through rugged mountain passes. When they reached easier ground he told them, 'Say, we ask Allah's forgiveness and we repent towards Him 'At Hudaybiyah, south of Mecca, the Prophet's camel knelt down and refused to go any further. The Muslims thought she was either stubborn or tired, but the Prophet (pbuh) said: 'The same power that once stopped the elephant from entering Mecca is now stopping us!' He then ordered them to make camp, which they did, although they all hoped they would travel on to the sacred Ka'bah the following day. On setting up camp, the believers were dismayed to find that the springs were almost dry. When he heard this the Messenger of Allah (pbuh) instructed a man called Najiyah to take the bowl of water in which he had performed his ablutions, pour it into the hollows where the small amount of spring

The Battle Of Badr

The Battle Of Badr 

The Muslims who had gone to Medinah, had left all their belongings behind in Mecca and these had been taken by their enemies. Thus, when the Muslims heard that Abu Sufyan, one of the leaders of Quraysh, was on his way back to Mecca from Syria with a large caravan of goods, they decided that the time had come for them to retrieve some of their losses. The Prophet (pbuh) gave the Muslims permission for this attack and everyone began to get ready for the raid, for it had been revealed: “Permission to fight is given unto those who fight because they have been wronged; and Allah is surely able to give them victory” (Qur'an 22.39) “The Revelation had mentioned that a thing most serious with Allah was to turn (men) from the way of Allah, and to disbelieve in Him and in the Holy Mosque, and to drive his people from there…for persecution is worse than killing”. (Qur'an 2.217) The retrieval of their goods, however, was not their only reason for wanting to attack the caravan. The Muslims did not think they should simply remain safely in Medinah; they wanted to spread the message of Islam. They thus felt that if Quraysh wanted freedom to trade in safety, then the Muslims must also have freedom to believe in Allah, to follow His Messenger (pbuh), and spread His Word.

The Treaty of ‘Aqabah

The Treaty of ‘Aqabah

In Yathrib there were two main tribes, the Aws and the Khazraj. Both were very powerful, they were always at war with one another, and both worshipped idols. Also in Yathrib were many Jews who, unlike the Arab at that time, knew that there was only One God, and worshipped Him. They had told the Arabs many times that a Prophet would be coming to them. The time came for the pilgrimage to the Ka‟bah, and several people from Yathrib were going, among them six men from the tribe of Khazraj. They had heard about the Prophet Mohammed‟s preaching and thought that must be the Prophet the Jews had told them about. So they decided to go speak to him during their stay in Mecca. They met the Prophet (pbuh) at a spot known as „Aqabah, near Mecca, and invited them to sit with him. He explained to them what Islam meant recited to them from the Qur'an. When they heard the Qur'an recited touched their hearts so deeply that they became Muslims and on leaving Mecca they promised to return the following year. When they reached Yathrib carrying Islam in their hearts, they told their relatives and friends what they had heard from the Prophet (pbuh) and many more people

The modern interpretation of satire

The modern interpretation of satire.
I.3.1. ‘Satire, in its literary aspect, may be defined as the expression …of the sense of amusement or disgust excited by the ridiculous or unseemly, provided that humour is a distinctly recognizable element, and that the utterance is invested with literary form’ (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1962, vol 20, 6). Satire is thus rather difficult to define succinctly, as humour may cover a number of different types including wit, irony, burlesque, parody or the grotesque. ‘Without humour, satire is invective; without literary form, it is mere clownish jeering’ (Ency. Brit., 1962, vol 20, 6). Satire has been generally viewed as a negative genre which concentrates on the absence of good sense or traditional values or put in another way, focuses on human vice and can make the world appear grotesque (Kernan, 1965, 3). The form that this basic approach takes depends upon what type of humour the author employs. Before discussing different types of humour, we will take a brief look at some critics’ views on satire. Dryden’s essay on satire entitled A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire written in 1693, came to the conclusion that true satire, as distinct from lampoon, existed only between the polarities of wit and morality (Kernan, 1965, 8). It may therefore be surmised that castigating human vice is not, in itself, sufficient motivation for satire as we understand it today, but that there must be a moral as well. ‘To dignify satire by rendering it the instrument of morality…was a development

Postcolonialism and Ethics

Postcolonialism and Ethics

It has been argued that, despite its institutional variation, colonialism typically displays three characteristics: domination, exploitation, and cultural imposition. Much work on colonialism within contemporary political theory and ethics has focused on the extent to which its exploitative character has had lasting effects on present-day distributions of benefits and burdens. A different perspective is taken by writers working within the postcolonial tradition, which, taking its lead from literary studies, emphasizes a variety of topics relating to the cultural effects of colonization. Postcolonialism does not simply seek to tell the story of what happened after decolonization, but seeks a critical perspective on its ongoing, problematic legacy: as Young writes, “Postcolonial critique focuses on forces of oppression and coercive domination that operate in the contemporary world: the politics of anticolonialism and neo-colonialism, race, gender, nationalism, class and ethnicities define its terrain” (2001: 11). A key theme here is that there is more to achieving liberation through decolonization than the formal decoupling of state apparatuses: as Diana Brydon writes, “Postcolonialism matters because decolonization is far from complete and colonial mentalities, including the inequalities they nurture, die hard” (Kohn and McBride 2011: 8). A sense of the diversity of work in this field can

Colonialism

Colonialism 

Defining colonialism is not a straightforward task. A variety of forms of historic and contemporary interaction between different peoples have been described as colonial or neo-colonial in character, and this poses problems: define the term too narrowly, and particular communities who have experienced injustice which they characterize as colonial are excluded; too broadly, and almost any form of relation featuring inequality of power between different international parties appears to be an instance of colonialism. Robert Young writes that colonialism “involved an extraordinary range of different forms and practices carried out with respect to radically different cultures, over many centuries,” and lists examples including settler colonies such as British North America and Australia, and French Algeria; administered territories established without significant settlement for the purposes of economic exploitation, such as British India and Japanese Taiwan; and maritime enclaves, such as Hong Kong, Malta, and Singapore (2001: 17). A recurrent problem concerns the relation between the terms “colonialism” and “imperialism.” For some, “colonialism” refers to a particular model of political organization, typified by settler and exploitation colonies, and is best seen as one specific instance of imperialism, understood as the domination of a territory by a separate metropole. Others use the term more broadly to refer to the general imperial policy of, in particular, Western states from the sixteenth century onward, reflecting an oppressive attitude which, some claim, still persists in the present day, albeit in different institutional forms. Attempts to establish general theories of colonialism thus encounter problems similar to those found in systematizing liberation ideologies such as feminism, which are rooted in the “experiential plurality” of those who have experienced different forms of oppression (Mansbridge and Okin 1993: 269; see FEMINIST ETHICS; FEMINIST POLITICAL THEORY). The range of different forms of political organization which are routinely

What is Postcolonial Literature?

What is Postcolonial Literature?

In a broad sense, postcolonial literature is writing which has been “affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day” (Ashcroft et al, 2). In India’s case, this includes novels, poetry, and drama which were written both during and after the British Raj or “Reign,” which came to a formal conclusion with Indian Independence in August 1947. Although writing from India and other formerly colonized countries such as Nigeria, Jamaica, Pakistan, and Singapore has distinctive features, postcolonial literature shares some significant concerns and characteristics. Concerns 1) Reclaiming spaces and places Colonialism was, above all, a means of claiming and exploiting foreign lands, resources, and people. Enslavement, indentured labor, and migration forced many indigenous populations to move from the places that they considered “home”. Postcolonial literature attempts to counteract their resulting alienation from their surroundings by restoring a connection between indigenous people and places through description, narration, and dramatization. 2) Asserting cultural integrity During colonization, the indigenous cultures of those countries subjected to foreign rule were often sidelined, suppressed, and openly denigrated in favor of elevating the social

Classical and medieval criticism

Classical and medieval criticism

Literary criticism has probably existed for as long as literature. In the 4th century BC Aristotle wrote the Poetics, a typology and description of literary forms with many specific criticisms of contemporary works of art. Poetics developed for the first time the concepts of mimesis and catharsis, which are still crucial in literary studies. Plato's attacks on poetry as imitative, secondary, and false were formative as well. Around the same time, Bharata Muni, in his Natya Shastra, wrote literary criticism on ancient Indian literature and Sanskrit drama.

Later classical and medieval criticism often focused on religious texts, and the several long religious traditions of hermeneutics and textual exegesis have had a profound influence on the study of secular texts. This was particularly the case for the literary traditions of the three Abrahamic religions: Jewish literature, Christian literature and Islamic literature.

Literary criticism was also employed in other forms of medieval Arabic literature and Arabic poetry from the 9th century, notably by Al-Jahiz in his al-Bayan wa-'l-tabyin and al-Hayawan, and by Abdullah ibn al-Mu'tazz in his Kitab al-Badi.

English drama from its origins to the present day

English drama from its origins to the present day

Drama was introduced to England from Europe by the Romans, and auditoriums were constructed across the country for this purpose. By the medieval period, the mummers' plays had developed, a form of early street theatre associated with the Morris dance, concentrating on themes such as Saint George and the Dragon and Robin Hood. These were folk tales re-telling old stories, and the actors travelled from town to town performing them for their audiences in return for money and hospitality.

*

The mystery plays, vernacular drama with its roots in liturgical drama, usually represented biblical subjects. In the 13th century, craft guilds began producing mystery plays at sites removed from the church, adding apocryphal and satirical elements to the dramas. In England groups of 25–50 plays were later organized into lengthy cycles, such as the Chester plays and the Wakefield plays. In England the plays were often performed on moveable pageant wagons, while in France and Italy they were acted on stages with scenery representing heaven, earth, and hell. Technical

French Revolution and the Romantic Poets

French Revolution and the Romantic Poets

The French Revolution bought to Europe the hope of political freedom and social reconstruction. Though the hope was dashed to the ground with the accession to power of Napoleon, its place was taken by the enthusiasm of the struggle of the nations against old regimes. Wordsworth was deeply saturated with the dogmas of the French Revolution. The Prelude analyses as well as communicates the progress of Wordsworth‘s political sympathies.

The French Revolution stirred in him republican sympathies, which were strengthened by his visits to France. Wordsworth records the feelings of those days:

Bliss was it in those days to be alive,

But to be young was very heaven.

Wordsworth and Coleridge were intimate friends. Coleridge like Wordsworth went through a phase or revolutionary ardour. All his poetical characteristics were deeply affected by his age. The French Revolution disillusioned him and he diverted his attention to spiritual idealism which provided him mental satisfaction. The daring of a personal inspiration, and that of a fresh-created language, came to him at the same time and this is the hour when his social zeal, his hopes for mankind, freed from the hope of any immediate realization, are transformed into a spiritual idealism. Although Byron did not express

Relationship between Literature and Society

Relationship between Literature and Society

We all know that literature mirrors society. What happens in a society is reflected in literary works in one form or another. The literal meaning of literature is the art of written work in different forms, such as, poetry, plays, stories, prose, fiction, etc. It may also consist of texts based on information as well as imagination.

A society is a group of people related to each other through their continuous and uninterrupted relations. It is also a group of likeminded people largely governed by their own norms and values. Human society, it is observed, is characterized by the patterns of relationship between individuals who share cultures, traditions, beliefs and values, etc.

If one looks at the history of society, one will find that the nature of different societies has gone through changes from the Palaeolithic period to the present age of Information Technology. The people’s living style, faiths, beliefs, cultures, etc., have never remained uniformly consistent. With the passage of time, owing to changes taking place in environment and with emergence of new technologies, we observe that the societies have not remained stubborn with regards to their norms and values, the reflections of which can be found in different forms of literature.

The Modern Novel

The Modern Novel

This is the most important and popular literary medium in the modern times. It is the only literary form which can compete for popularity with the film and the radio, and it is in this form that a great deal of distinguished work is being produced. The publication of a new novel by a great novelist is received now with the same enthusiastic response as a new comedy by Dryden or Congreve was received in the Restoration period, and a new volume of poems by Tennyson during the Victorian period. Poetry which had for many centuries held the supreme place in the realm of literature, has lost that position. Its appeal to the general public is now negligible, and it has been obviously superseded by fiction.

The main reason for this change is that the novel is the only literary form which meets the needs of the modern world. The great merit of poetry is that it has the capacity to convey more than one meaning at a time. It provides compression of meaning through metaphorical expression. It manages to distil into a brief expression a whole range of meanings, appealing to both intellect and emotion. But this compression of metaphor is dependent upon a certain compression in the society. In other words, the metaphor used in poetry must be based on certain assumptions or public truths held in common by both the poet and the audience. For example the word ‘home’ stood for a settled peaceful life with wife and children, during the Victorian home. So if this word was used as a metaphor in poetry its meaning to the poet as well to the audience was the same. But in the twentieth century when on account of so many divorces and domestic disturbances, home has lost its sanctity, in English society, the word ‘home’ cannot be used by the poet in that sense because it will convey to

The English Metaphysical Poets and Poetry

Introduction:

The term “metaphysical” as applied to Donne and his followers is, more or less, a misnomer. However, it has come to stick. It was Dryden who first applied the term in relation to Donne’s poetry. “He affected,” complained Dryden, “the metaphysics, not only in his satires but in his amorous verses.” Dr. Johnson borrowed Dryden’s ideas, and in his “Life of Cowley” called Cowley a poet of the metaphysical school of Donne.

He derided Cowley’s pedantic exhibition of his learning and vocabulary in his poems. But the exhibition of their learning was only one of the many characteristics of the metaphysical poets. Their love of daring imagery, enigmatic expression, a peculiar sensualism uneasily wedded to a mystical conception of religion, their intellectualism and taste for the expression of novel ideas in a novel manner, were some other qualities. The term “metaphysical” denotes, according to Saintsbury, “the habit, common to this school of poets, of always seeking to express something after, something behind, the simple, obvious first sense and suggestion of a subject.” In this way Donne and his followers strike a note of variance from Spenser and the Spenserians and Elizabethan poetry in general.

The Influence of the Renaissance on English Literature

The Influence of the Renaissance on English Literature

Introduction:

It is difficult to date or define the Renaissance. Etymologically the term, which was first used in England only as late as the nineteenth century, means’ “re-birth”. Broadly speaking, the Renaissance implies that re-awakening of learning which came to Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

The Renaissance was not only an English but a European phenomenon; and basically considered, it signalised a thorough substitution of the medieval habits of thought by new attitudes. The dawn of the Renaissance came first to Italy and a little later to France. To England it came much later, roughly about the beginning of the sixteenth century. As we have said at the outset, it is difficult to date the Renaissance; however, it may be mentioned that in Italy the impact of Greek learning was first felt when after the Turkish conquest of Constantinople the Greek scholars fled and took refuge in Italy carrying with them a vast treasure of ancient Greek literature in manuscript. The study of this literature fired the soul and imagination of the Italy of that time and created a new kind of intellectual and aesthetic culture quite different from that of the Middle Ages. The light of the Renaissance came very slowly to the isolated island of England, so that when it did come in all its brilliance in the sixteenth century, the Renaissance in Italy had already become a spent force.

Modern English Drama

Modern English Drama

Introduction to Modern English Drama

2.1 The Beginning

The glorious days of the Elizabethan drama were followed by a long period of decline and eclipse. The post-Elizabethan vainly endeavoured to capture the graces of Shakespeare and other illustrious predecessors, while the heroic tragedies and the comedy 14 of love and intrigue during the Restoration hardly added any glorious chapter to the history of English dramatic literature. Goldsmith and Sheridan attempted a partial revival in the eighteenth century, but their sporadic brilliance was followed by a spell of darkness which spread for almost a century, for between 1779, the year of the performance of Sheridan’s last important play, and 1876 when Pinero’s first play was staged, English drama was practically barren. The later eighteenth century witnessed the rise of great actors but not great playwrights. And it is an accepted rule that when acting flourishes drama languishes. Melodramatic, sensational and unrealistic plays alone were popular. A play was written not with a view to depicting life and character but for providing sufficient scope for the lusty lungs of the declamatory actor. Play writing was done mostly by hack writers, who sacrificed both art and realism in trying to eke out a living by writing to the dictates of theatre managers, producers and actors. English drama was at very low ebb when T.W. Robertson, a playwright and actor, appeared on the scene, fully alive to the lack of realism and low artistic tone of the drama of his day he determined to import

Modern Trends in 20th Century Poetry

Modern Trends in 20th Century Poetry

Introduction

Though poets don’t write for the convenience of theorists, and groupings are often discerned later, analysis can still disclose themes that were powerful because so buried, i.e. not recognized or questioned at the time. One such is the negative aspect of European poetry: what it leaves out. The result has been a local thickening as one aspect or another is taken up, but also an overall impoverishment of theme and language, with poetry dividing into coterie groups that each claim to have the essential truth.

Death of Truth

Pride in country and community, a wish to explore, develop and identify with the aspirations of one’s fellow citizens, an abiding interest in the larger political and social issues of the day and a commitment to the moral and religious qualities that distinguish man from brute animals are all aspects of modern democratic life, but they find scant expression in its poetry. Wordsworth’s broodings on the ineffable are preferred to his patriotic odes, and Swinburne’s urgent rhetoric is no more read today than William Watson’s high-minded effusions. Even the Georgians with their innocent depictions of country life were decried by the Moderns, though what was substituted was a good deal less real and relevant to the book-buying public. The New Criticism ushered in by Pound and Eliot, finding in the admired poetry of the past so much that was no longer true, declared that truth was not to be looked for in poetry. All that mattered were the words on the page, and the ingenious skill with which they deployed. The experience of historians was set aside, as was indeed that of readers of historical romances, both of whom can remain happily

Classicism and Romanticism

Classicism and Romanticism are artistic movements that have influenced the literature, visual art, music, and architecture of the Western world over many centuries. With its origins in the ancient Greek and Roman societies, Classicism defines beauty as that which demonstrates balance and order. Romanticism developed in the 18th century — partially as a reaction against the ideals of Classicism — and expresses beauty through imagination and powerful emotions. Although the characteristics of these movements are frequently at odds, both schools of thought continued to influence Western art into the 21st century.

The name "Classical" was given to the Greeks and Romans retroactively by Renaissance writers. Artists and thinkers of the Renaissance, which literally means "rebirth," saw themselves as the heirs of that world following the Middle Ages. Its ideals continued to exert strong influence into the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries.

In literature, Classicism values traditional forms and structures. According to legend, the Roman poet Virgil left orders for his masterpiece The Aeneid to be burned at his death, because a few of its lines were still metrically imperfect. This rather extreme example demonstrates the importance placed on excellence in formal execution. Such attention to detail can also be seen in the work of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, whose Divine Comedy contains over 14,000 lines written in a strict rhyming pattern known as terza rima. Other characteristics of the movement include balance, order, and emotional restraint.

Individualism in Literature Essay

Individualism in Literature Essay

Individualism is one of the most wondrous themes of literature because of its contribution to the pursuit of human dignity. Individualism is a moral stance and a philosophical concept which puts emphasis on the moral worth and the supreme and intrinsic value of human beings (Lukes 51). Literature has proved to be an outlet for an artist’s own definition of individualism. Due to the fact that such philosophical concept is associated with so many aspects of life including society and culture and art, authors have devoted ample time in using individualism creatively while demonstrating social awareness and way

of life.

Among the authors who explore the concept of individualism are Ayn Rand, Charlotte Gilman and Margaret Atwood. The characters in the literary works of such authors reflect how the pursuit for individualism can be disturbed ans stunted with the occurrence of love. Rand’s dystopian book called Anthem explores the turbulent period in which mankind is forced to live with the harsh setbacks of irrationality and collectivism, and the failures of socialistic upbringing and economics.

In Anthem, a youth named Equality 7-2521 finds himself in a hidden tunnel, isolating himself from an anti-individualistic society and realizinng how much solace and solitude suit him. But his search for individualism is being disrupted by the Golden One, a beautiful peasant girl whom he considers as a valuable element in his eyes (Rand 19). In Gilman’s novel titled Herland, three adventurous friends journey into an all-female land called Herland and

Education Qualified as a Human Right

Education Qualified as a Human Right

Education is an institution that typically is established through a collective social desire to have civil and supportive societies. And if one considers the social dynamic found in many countries around the world, there is the suggestion that usually the more education people have, the better off they can be. With this in mind, many societies traditionally view education (at least primary and secondary education) as a genuine public good that adults and educators provide for children until such time that they outgrow their childhood vulnerabilities and inexperience to become contributing members of society themselves

literary Individualism

Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.^[1][2] Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance^[3] and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group,^[3] while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government.^[3] Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism and more corporate social forms.^[4][5]

Individualism makes the individual its focus^[1] and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation."^[6] Classical Liberalism, existentialism, and anarchism are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis.^[6] Individualism thus involves "the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization".^[7]

It has also been used as a term denoting "The quality of being an individual; individuality"^[3] related to possessing "An individual characteristic; a quirk."^[3]Individualism is thus also