History of Islam
This article is about the history of Islam as
a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For
Islamic civilization, seeMuslim
world. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests.
For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.
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The history of Islam concerns the Islamic religion and its adherents, known
as Muslims.
"Muslim" is an Arabicword meaning
"one who submits to God". Muslims
and their religion have greatly impacted the political, economic, and military history of
the Old World,
especially the Middle
East, where lie its roots. Though it is believed by non-Muslims to
have originated in Mecca and Medina, Muslims believe that the religion of
Islam has been present since the time of the prophet Adam. The Islamic world expanded
to include people of the Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living
in that civilization.
A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic
empire extended from Spain in the west toIndus in the east. The subsequent empires
such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids,Ajuuraan, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in
India and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans were
among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The Islamic
civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science
and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses
and philosophersduring
the Golden
Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in
economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the
importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of
literacy in the general populace.
In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from
the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly
weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to
Egypt, and the Ottoman
Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating
an Islamic world
power again, although one that was unable to master the
challenges of the Early
Modern period.
Later, in modern history (18th
and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of
European Great
powers. After the First World War,
Ottoman territories (a Central Powers member)
were partitioned into several nations under
the terms of the Treaty
of Sèvres.
Although affected by ideologies such as socialism and secularism during
much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and
the dominance of Islam on political issues intensified during
the early
21st century. Global interests in Islamic regions, international
conflicts and globalization changed
the type of Islamic influence on the contemporary world.[1] In
the contemporary period, a set of ideologies holding interpretations of Islamic
texts that advocate theunification
of religion and state has spread, but the ideology has been criticized.
Main article: Historiography of early Islam
The Islamic state and Muslim's
system of government evolved through various stages.[2] The
precise dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrary.
The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial
period lasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted
from 750s to around 900s. These correspond to the early period of
post-classical history. The "Decentralization" period lasted
from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high period and late period of
post-classical history. The "Fragmentation" period lasted
from around 1500s to the late 1910s. Thecontemporary
period, referred to as the National period, lasted from
1910s into the twenty-first century.
Dates are approximate, consult particular
article for details.
Further information: Timeline of Muslim history
See also: Disputed issues in early Islamic history
Islamic origins[edit]
Main articles: Quraysh (tribe), Banu Hashim, Muhammad, and Qu'ran
In pre-Islamic
Arabia Arab people lived on the Arabian Plate. In
the south of Hedjaz (principal
religious and commercial centre of post-classical Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Muhammad belonged,
had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The
Quraysh were the guardians of the Kaaba within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca
upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an
important pagan shrine.
It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted.
Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe
of the Quraysh clan,[3] a
branch of the Banu
Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance
from theKhuza'imah (House
of Khuza'a).
Nakkaş Osman, Istanbul (1595)
(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)
(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)
According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an
(Koran) began with revelations to
Muhammad (when he was 40 years old) in 610. The history of the Qur'an began when its verses were
revealed to the Sahabah during
Muhammad's life. The rise of Islam began around the time Muslims took flight in
the Hijra,
moving to Medina. With Islam, blood feudsamong the
Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood and only the
culprit was executed.
In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim
community in Medina signed a truce called the Treaty
of Hudaybiyyabeginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when
the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of
'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was
fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.
See also: Early scholars of Islam
City-states and Imperial period[edit]
Main articles: Succession to Muhammad and Caliphate
After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the
Islamic State: Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar
ibn al-Khattab (Umar І, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan,
(644-656), and Ali
ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "Rashidun" or
"rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. They
oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests,
advancing throughPersia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa.
Umar improved
the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrigation
networks. To be close to the poor,Umar lived
in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After
consulting with the poor, Umarestablished
the first welfare state Bayt
al-mal.[4][5][6] The Bayt al-mal or
the welfare state was for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans,
widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran
for hundreds of years under the Rashidun
Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period
and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also
introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.[7][8][9][10] The
expansion of the state, was partially terminated between 638–639 during the
years of great famine and plague in Arabia and Levantrespectively. During Umars reign, within 10 years Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost the
whole of Sassanid
Persian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were incorporated into Islamic
State. When Umar was assassinated in 644,the election of Uthman as successor was met with
increasing opposition. The Qur'an was standardized during this time.
Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians,
persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take
over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally
speedy conquests.[11][12] As
new areas joining the Islamic State, they also benefited from free trade, while
trading with other areas in the Islamic State, so as to encourage commerce, in
Islam trade is not taxed, wealth is taxed.[13] The
Muslims paid Zakat on their
wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophetMuhammad the
Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State
and had their own judges.[14][15][16] Therefore
they only paid for policing for the protection of their property. To assist in
the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection
systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one
imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.
In 639, Muawiyah I was
appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along
with 25,000 other people.[17][18] To
stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine
Wars, in 649 Muawiyah
I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim
troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle
of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[19][20][21][22][23]
When Umar was assassinated in 644, Uthman Ibn Affan became
the next caliph. As it is well known that Arabic language is written without
vowels, and when Qur'an reached the non-Arabic speakers, people began having
different dielects and phonics which was changing the exact meaning of verses
in the Qur'an. This was brought to the notice of Uthman Ibn Affan.
Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the compilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime
between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies to the different centers of the
expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim scribes began
copying the Qur'an.[24]
The Qur'an and Muhammad talked
about racial equality and justice as in the The
Farewell Sermon.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31] Tribal
and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing
the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following
the Roman–Persian
Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences
between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and
Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire
also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to
be in their area.[32] Previously,
the second caliphUmar was very
firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt
that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet
the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.[33]
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from
cities because Umar feared
that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get
away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start
accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[34][35][36][37] "Wealth
and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good
deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [one's] hope."
Qur'an 18:46 [38]"O
you who have believed, let not your wealth and your children divert you from
remembrance of Allah . And whoever does that - then those are the losers."
Qur'an 63:9 [39] Staying
in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress
on the population and also that the populations remained autonomous and kept
their own judges and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew into
cities themselves, like Basra and Kufain Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[40] Some
cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.
As Uthman
ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a
relative of Muawiyah
I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly
assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had
previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and
the adopted son of Ali
ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq showed
some Egyptians, the house of Uthman
ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing Uthman
ibn al-Affan.[41] Ali
then assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in
Iraq. Muawiyah Ithe
governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman
ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted
the culprits arrested. Marwan I manipulated
every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the first civil war (the
"First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in
661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly
regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fifth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the
Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty
with Muawiyah I. In
the Hasan-Muawiya
treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition
that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death
he does not establish a dynasty.[42][43] This
brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan
ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following
this, Mu'awiyah broke
the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty,
with its capital in Damascus.[44] After
Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil
war known as the "Second
Fitna". After making every one else fight,[45] the
Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I who
was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese
Gaul and Sindh.[46]
After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hassan ibn Ali, and
the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,[47] Muawiyah I proclaimed
himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.[48] In
663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.[48] In
664, Muawiyah and Ziyad
ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised
Ziyad as a brother and appointed him governor at Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan.
Muawiyah arranged for his son Yazid I to be
appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husain ibn Ali, by
then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He
was killed in the Battle
of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims on
the Day
of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but
Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and
expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,[49] and
in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.[50]
Succession and Umayyad accession
Consult particular article for details
The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads),
whose name derives from Umayya
ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph,
ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca, Damascus was
the capital. After the death of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,[51][52]Muawiyah I consolidated
his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from Medina, which led to profound changes in the
empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from
Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.
As the state grew, the state expenses increased.
Additionally the Bayt
al-mal and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and
the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled,
increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the
poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with
the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.[53][54][55] All
this increased discontent.[56][57] The
descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied
discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the
Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim,
inaugurating the Abbasid
dynasty in 750, which moved the capital to Baghdad.[58] A
branch of theUmmayad family
fled across North
Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate
of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to theFitna
of al-Ándalus. The Bayt al-mal, the
Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.
At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more
than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km2) making it one of
the largest empires the world had yet seen,[59] and
the fifth largest contiguous empire ever. After the
Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate,
they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where
they established the Caliphate
of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 with the Fitna
of al-Ándalus.
The Mosque of Uqba (Great
Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670 AD, is
the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim West; its present form
dates from the 9th century, Kairouan, Tunisia.
Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to
rival that of Constantinople.
He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at
one point, though the Byzantines drove
him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit
him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-civil war anarchy.
However, Shia
Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim
nation by dividing the Ummah,
fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[60] slandering the Prophet's family[61] and
even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[62] One
of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to
designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was
a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.
In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as
the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the Berbersand Byzantines.[63] From
there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards Tangier, where he
reached the Atlantic
coast, and then marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.[64] With
about 300cavalrymen, he proceeded
towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and
all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north
Africa for a period.[65]Weakened
by the civil wars the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the
islands of Rhodesand Crete. Under the rule of Yazid I, some
Muslims in Kufa began to think that if Hussein ibn Ali the
descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was
invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Later this concept was taken
one step further and they started thinking, what if history took a different
course and Ali was the first caliph and these ideas were later adopted by some
Shia and institutionalised by the Safavids.
The Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built
by Abd al-Malik; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.
The period under Muawiya II was
marked by civil wars (Second
Fitna). This would ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable
ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important
records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for
the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire
under Justinian
II (Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor. The
Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a
large contingent of Slavs.
The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world.
He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and
extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service.
Al-Walid
I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the
early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt
from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and
across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed
the Strait
of Gibraltar and began to conquer Spain using North African Berber armies.
The Visigoths of
Spain were defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of
Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In
the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad
bin Qasim made it as far as the Indus Valley. Under
Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj
bin Yousef played a crucial role in the organization and
selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the
expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad
era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is
considered to be the apex of Islamic power.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph
the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia.
Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj,
one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutaibah
bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son
Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no
threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected
his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman
did not move to Damascus on
becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla.
Sulayman sent Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the
Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive.
The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.
Yazid II came
to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar
had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's
reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.[66] Yazid
expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724.
Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with
many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing
the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective
one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular
raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings
combined with local restlessness to produce a significant Berber revolt. He
was also faced with a revolt by Zayd bin Ali. Hisham
suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and
Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught
and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle
of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final
campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[67] Hisham
died in 743.
Al-Walid
II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke
out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included
discrimination on behalf of theBanu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further
support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).[68] Walid
was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup.[69] Yazid
disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that
he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for
only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident
movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim
ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled
for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan IIruled from
744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from
Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed
governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very
prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support.
Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the
Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the
East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the
entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who
escaped to Spain and founded a dynasty there.
Universal period and decentralization[edit]
Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic
Golden Age
The Abbasid dynasty
rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates.
Initially, they conquered Mediterranean islands including theBalearics and Sicily.[70] The ruling party had
come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by
the Abbasid revolutionary Abu
Muslim.[71][72] Under
the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development
of Arabic prose and poetry, termed
by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden
age".[73] Commerce
and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution) and the arts and
sciences (considered aMuslim
Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled
754 — 775), Harun
al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled
809 — 813) and their immediate successors.[74]
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Decentralized territory
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Regions are approximate, consult particular article for
details.
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The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad, due to the
importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.[74] At
this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional
dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting
Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I,
escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In
the Maghreb, Harun
al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as
virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central
authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty
in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a
capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the
planet of victory", known today as Cairo). In Persia the TurkicGhaznavids snatched
power from the Abbasids.[75][76] Abbasid
influence had been consumed by the Great
Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into
mainland Persia) by 1055.[74]
Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by
peaceful proselytising.[70] The
first stage in the conquest of India began just before the
year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had
fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year
1000. Muslim rulers were in Kanemstarting from
sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head
of Gao as early as
1009. The Islamic
kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th
century.[77]
The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater
Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by
doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also
distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral
character and administration. According to Ira Lapidus,
"The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved
settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali".[78] The
Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who
remained outside the kinship-based
society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad
empire. Islamic ecumenism,
promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of theUmmah in the literal meaning: that
there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was
codified, and the four Madhabs were
established. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. Religious achievements included
completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and
others.[79] Islam
recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic
religions, the Qur'an identifying Jews,Christians, Zoroastrians, and
"Sabi'un" or
"baptists" (usually taken as a reference to theMandeans and
related Mesopotamian groups) as "people
of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the
doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two majordenominations of Islam, solidified and the divisions of the world theologically would form.
These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.
Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an
Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.)
The regional Sultanate and Emirate governors'
existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.[80] In
the early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented
an argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for
the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology;
thus, Averroismhas been
considered a precursor to modern secularism.[81][82]
Early Middle Ages
Consult particular article for details
According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the
founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the
Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating
the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the Battle of the Zab,
Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His
forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the
Abbasid Caliphate.[83]
In Al-Mansur's
time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The
Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of
the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory
from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name
means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph
when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign,
becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq,
Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to
Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim
population. Like his father, Al-Hadi[84] was
open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at
Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the
policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military
conflicts and internal intrigue.
An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the
Abbasid Era.
The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled.[85] His
reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He
established the library Bayt al-Hikma ("House
of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The Barmakid family
played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined
during Rashid's rule.[86]
According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to
Mecca, Al-Amin received
the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal
rebellions. General Tahir
ibn Husayn rebelled and besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements to regain
positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought
to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over
his sceptre, seal and other
signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected
warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and Al-Amin was thrown
into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His head
was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.[87]
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry
among Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and
immigrant Turks.[88] In
addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[89] The
Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great
portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia.
The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the
Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the
caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was
the Tahirid
dynasty in Khorasan, which was
founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun's reign.
Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this
time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy,
science, and mathematics.[90]
Early Middle Ages
Consult particular article for details
Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became
Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and
dealt with rebellions.[91] Al-Ma'mun
had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power,
the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure
his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and
became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen
Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became
a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.
Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth
succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam
against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious
scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna, the Abbasid
inquisitionwhich he introduced in 833 four months before he died.[92] The Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic
politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulema and
the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In
parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences
between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.
During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made
preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition
in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun
gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with
tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most
famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[93] His
scientists originated alchemy.
Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered
the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and
treasure. Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original
entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and
was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather
than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.
As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling
of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the
most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak
Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant
victory. Byzantine
emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid
fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces
at the Battle
of Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military
conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders
and ghilmanslave-soldiers
(foreshadowing the Mamluk system).
The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined
during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life
there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued
to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight
functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east.
Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his
predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture
against the opposition. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was
employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at
the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra
under the caliph's patronage.[94]
Al-Wathiq succeeded
his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in
Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad
rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab
populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism
between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a
captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as
well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have
composed over one hundred songs.[95]
.
When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded
him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a
golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty
fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the Great Mosque of Samarra[96] as
part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met
famous Byzantine theologianConstantine the Philosopher, who was sent to
strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor Michael III.
Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his
actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the
destruction of the shrine
of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī, an action that was ostensibly carried out to
stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and
slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires,
notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by
a Turkish soldier.
Al-Muntasir succeeded
to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction,
though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir
remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder
of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his
reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and
Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown
causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor,
electing Al-Musta'in.
The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and
attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but
depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the
Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and
murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned
to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but
was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming
the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.
|
High Abbasids
Jurisprudence |
|
Four constructions of Islamite law
Abu
Hanifa (Iraq teacher)
Malik
bin Anas (Medina Imam)
Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i(Egyptian Iman)
Ahmad
ibn Hanbal (Baghdad teacher)
|
|
Early Abbasids
Literature and Science |
|
Hunayn
ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator;
Ibn
Fadlan, explorer;
Al
Battani, astronomer;
Tabari, historian and theologian;
Al-Razi,
philosopher, medic, chemist;
Al-Farabi,
chemist and philosopher;
Abu
Nasr Mansur, mathematician;
Alhazen,
mathematician;
Al-Biruni,
mathematician, astronomer, physicist;
Omar
Khayyám, poet, mathematician, and astronomer;
Mansur
Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic, writer and teacher
|
Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters,
but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At Samarra, the Turks
were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors), while the
Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both
with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to
death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and
Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly
thereafter. Al-Muhtadi became
the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs,
though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his
ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed,
holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After
the Zanj
Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned al-Muwaffak to
help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The Hamdanid dynasty was
founded by Hamdan
ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890.
Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, al-Mu'tadid, and
never regained power. The Tulunidsbecame
the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this
time.
Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt
returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant
towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid
was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his
predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about
Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and
then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish
slave-girl, Al-Muktafi,
succeeded to the throne.
Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his
generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of
Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as theCarmathians. Upon
Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir.
Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on
the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its
lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence,
and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to
formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed
independence.
At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period,
Empress Zoe
Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and
arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[97] while
the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to
Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed
in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city
gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was
even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.
His son Ar-Radi took
over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he
became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik(amir al-umara;
'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was
joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis, supported
by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is
commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations
at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to
discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to
distribute alms,
or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad
Abbasids.
In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of
Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as
governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the
Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The
last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".
Also in the 930s, ‘Alī ibn Būyah and
his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad founded
the Būyid
confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was
able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years
the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while
accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large
territorial gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq
submitted in 945, before the Būyids took Kermān (967), Oman (967), the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went
into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and
local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.[98]
Early High Middle Ages
Consult particular article for details
|
Mediterrean Region
and the States of the Crusades |
||
Regional States, ca. 1180.
|
At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the
Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al-umara Bajkam contented himself with dispatching
his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor.
The choice fell on Al-Muttaqi.
Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy
in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was
welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir al-Dawla advanced
on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish
general Tuzun became amir
al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the
Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to
Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at Ar Raqqah, moving to
Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as
successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi. With
the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and
the Hamdanids. Soon
after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The
Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the
Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into
abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed.
The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.[99]
|
Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims
|
|
al-Farabi,
Persian (Soghdian) philosopher;
Al-Mutanebbi,
Arabic poet;
Abu
Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina(Avicenna),
physician, philosopher, and scientist
|
Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became
caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were
established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the
Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized
religiously, except in Iberia.
Buwayhid Sultan Mu'izz
al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the
throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and
beyond.[100]
The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned
over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The
Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by
small border states. Baha' al-Dawla, the
Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed al-Qadir the
new caliph.[101]
During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked
after the empire. The great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly
towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly
announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir
fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as
the Baghdad
Manifesto and the doctrine that the Qu'ran was created. He
outlawed the Muʿtazila,
bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During
this and the next period, Islamic
literature, especially Persian
literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.[102] By
1000 the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of the world
total compared to the Christian population of 10 per cent.
During Al-Qa'im's
reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained
power. Toghrül overran
Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was
well-received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain, the
Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa.
Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual
jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was
honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during
whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of
Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in
affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad
Abbasids.[103]
Late High Middle Ages
Consult particular article for details
The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of
the Crusades to
the Seventh
Crusade. The first Caliph was Al-Mustazhir. He was
politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the First Crusade in
Syria. Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to attack
Baghdad, losing at the Battle
of Manzikert. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per
cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. Jerusalem was
captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled
throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover
the Al-Aqsa
Mosque from the Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds
of exiles rallied for war against the infidel. Neither the
Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.[104]
Al-Mustarshid achieved
more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in
the East. The Banu
Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa[105] (emir
of Al-Hilla),
plundered Bosra and
attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq
army underZengi, founder of
the Zengid
dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son
Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the
East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then
laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and
Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.[106]
After the siege of Damascus (1134),[107] Zengi
undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked
sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found
murdered.[108] His
son, Al-Rashid failed to gain independence from
Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate.
Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul.
The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his
uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid
fled to Isfahan and was
killed by Hashshashins.[109]
Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks
allowe4d al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout
Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While
the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II
of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph
dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the
Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.
The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid,
saw Saladin extinguish
the Fatimid
dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again
prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned
when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.
An-Nasir,
"The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the
Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit
to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked
by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous
invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his
death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made caliph.
Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ögedei Khan commanded
to raise up Khorassan and
populated Herat. The Mongol
military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain,
Azerbaijan. The rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia surrendered.
Chormaqan divided theTranscaucasia region
into three districts based on military hierarchy.[110] In
Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.[111] By
1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq
and Ismaili strongholds,
and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[112]
Al-Musta'sim was
the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise
of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the
east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan swept
through the Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon
afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid
Caliph in Cairo.
Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo
Late Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages
Consult particular article for details
The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned
under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans
and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans.
All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were
spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only
Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was
the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated
the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.[113][114]
Cairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh
"Islamic Cairo" building was named afterAl-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli,
and extended byBadr
al-Jamali.
The Fatimids originated
in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The
dynasty was founded in 909 by ʻAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who legitimised his claim
through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and
her husband ʻAlī
ibn-Abī-Tālib, the first Shīʻa Imām, hence the
name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".[115] The
Fatamids and the Zaydis at
the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[116][117][118]
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of
central Maghreb, an area
consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya,
which he ruled from Mahdia,
his capital in Tunisia.[119]
The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century,
conquering the Ikhshidid
dynasty and founding a capital atal-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[120] The
name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was
prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was
intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the
actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the
Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia
to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire
that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria,
the Red Sea coast
of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.[121] Egypt
flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the
Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended
all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which
determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.
Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement
in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other
branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to
government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians
and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.[122] There
were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area
at Bin El-Quasryn street.[123]
Early and High Middle Ages
Consult particular article for details
During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the
Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also
contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid
realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as
they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions,
the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently,
they traveled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the
epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor
returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western
Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of
government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North
Africa.[124]
Al Mahdi established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed
genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al
Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western
Africa, under Aghlabid rule.
His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was
instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah
tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at
Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in
Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of
the Idrisids, as well as
Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established
capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah.
After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad
Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.[125]
Main articles: Umayyad conquest of Hispania, Al-Andalus,
and Taifa
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad,
first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding
party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic
kingdom in Hispania.
Crossing the Strait
of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive
victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was
defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle
of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed
with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the
peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a
certainṬārif in 710
and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab
attack incited by Erwig during
the reign of Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have
been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[126]
The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After
the Abbasids came
to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By
the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took
over the title of Emir
of Córdoba(912-961).[127] Soon
after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital
as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded
to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He
secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[128] and
made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of
irrigation works.[129] Economical
development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the
building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim
presence in the peninsula.[130]
The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political
divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham IIwho was
ousted because of his indolence.[131] Al-Andalus
then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk
al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate
into those petty
kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the
Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that
of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay
tributes in money to Castille.[132]
Main article: Emirs
of Córdoba
Consult particular article for details
Abd
al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their
lives after the popular revolt known as the Abbasid
Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai,
and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family
members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr
reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to
al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be
welcome. Following the Berber
Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with
the Ummah torn by
tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and
Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – Obeid Allah ibn Uthman andAbd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of
Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then
in Zaragoza) to get his
consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself
emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to
al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of
followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in
al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga.
During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local
support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order
to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and
dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in
northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza.
Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river,
just outside of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I
was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army.
Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a counterattack, but
negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he
proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim
caliph, though.[133] The
last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's
jail. Al-Andalus was a safe
haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the
Abbasids.[134]
In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had
planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids,
killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated,
their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The
heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was
on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He
began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along
the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm
and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged
science and literature in his states. This good king died on the 29th of
September, 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.[135][136]
Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. Born in
Córdoba, he built many mosques and
completed theMezquita. He called
for a jihad that
resulted in a campaign against the Kingdom
of Asturias and the County
of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange
by William
of Gellone, first cousin toCharlemagne. His
successor Al-Hakam
I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of
Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chapelle to
negotiate for aid. In the mean time Córdoba was attacked, but was defended.
Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and
Mérida.[137]
Abd
ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly
continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he
halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by Vikings who had
disembarked in Cadiz,
conquered Seville (with
the exception of its citadel)
and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to
repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his
struggle against Charles
the Bald's nominations.[138]
Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of
the Muladi (ethnic
Iberian Muslims) and Mozarabs(Muslim-Iberia
Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I
commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the
Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his
two-year reign, Mundhir I fought againstUmar ibn Hafsun. He
died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.
Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed
as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs,
Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba,
while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as
successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn
executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III,
son of the killed son of Umawi.[139][140][141]
Main article: Caliphate
of Córdoba
Consult particular article for details
Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by
the Fatimids claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally recognized
Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.[142]
Main article: Almoravid dynasty
Consult particular article for details
Ifriqiyah, Iberian
Main article: Almohad dynasty
Consult particular article for details
List of Crusades
Early period
· First Crusade 1095–1099
· Second Crusade 1147–1149
· Third Crusade 1187–1192
Low Period
· Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
· Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
· Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Late period
· Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
· Eighth Crusade 1270
· Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
Early period
· First Crusade 1095–1099
· Second Crusade 1147–1149
· Third Crusade 1187–1192
Low Period
· Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
· Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
· Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Late period
· Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
· Eighth Crusade 1270
· Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Reconquista aimed
at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II,
inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by
the eastern
Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called
for the First
Crusadefrom Western Europe which captured Odessa, Antioch, County of Tripoli and
Jerusalem.[143]
In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom
of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The
Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over
the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant, but did not in threaten the Islamic
Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended
Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced
with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving
the Crusaders holding a few ports.[144]
In the Third Crusade armies
from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for
several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista
continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the fall of Granada in
1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth Crusade was
diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople,
leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in
their long struggle against the Turkish peoples to
the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates;
according to William of Malmesbury, preventing them from further
expansion into Christendom[145] and
being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.
See also: High Middle Ages, Frankokratia, and Crusader states
Main article: Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty was
founded by Saladin and
centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the
Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th
and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz,
Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia.
After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's
brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's
Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided
until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most
of Syria, excluding Aleppo,
by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave
regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of
Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained
of the Ayyubid territories soon after.[146]
Consult particular article for details
Consult particular article for details
Consult particular article for details
See also: Ilkhanate and Golden Horde
After the Crusades the Mongols invaded
in the 13th century, marking the end of the Islamic
Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world
never fully recovered. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, The
Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 at
a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread
throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had
fallen to them by 1237.[147]
With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251,
Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother,Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned
to the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been
the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was
captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of
Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed
due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to
the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian
Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal Battle
of Ain Jalut.[148]
Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and
the Chagatai
Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates -
embraced Islam.[149][150][151] In
power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th
century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by
the new Mongol power founded byTimur (himself
a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in
India and the Ottoman
Turks in Anatolia.
His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi and many other cities, with
enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death, which
may have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague
began in China, and reached Alexandriain Egypt
in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The
combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in
a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would
found many branches of Islam, including the Mughals of
India.[152][153]
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by
slave regiments, and the Mamluk Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the
Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks,
who were Turkic,
forced out the Mongols (see Battle
of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty.
Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid
and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).[154] The
Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension,
proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).[155]
As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic
orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including
mosques, madrasas andkhanqahs. Though some construction took place in the
provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk
buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo.[156]
Main article: Bahri dynasty
Consult particular article for details
A former Mamluk slave who was born a prince, Aybak (known as Lion of Ain
Jaloot) replaced the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak, by then a general, marriedShajar al-Durr, the
widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub.
Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role
in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After Aybak's assassination and
the accession of Qutuz in 1259,
the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the Battle
of Ain Jalut in late 1260. The Mongols were again defeated by
the Mamluks at the Battle
of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria
altogether.[76] With
this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last
of the crusader territories in the Levant.
The global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent
of the world total as against the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.
Main article: Islam in Africa
The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the
century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of Muhammad in
632. By 640 the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia, had
invaded Armenia, and were
concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was
the seat of the Umayyad
caliphate. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in
Arab hands.
Main articles: Islam in Ethiopia and Islam in Somalia
The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is
almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social
interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of
the Red Sea, in
the Arabian
peninsula, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came
under the influence of the new religion.[157]
Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia to seek
protection from the Quraysh at
the court of the Aksumite
Emperorin present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted
protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to
promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th
century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their
trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading
routes in the Mediterranean and
the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim
Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations
of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as
catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.[157]
The Great Mosque of Kairouan also
known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in 670 by the Arab general and
conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in
the city of Kairouan, Tunisia.
Kairouan in Tunisia was the
first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb. Arab
general Uqba
ibn Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time,
the Great
Mosque of Kairouan[158] considered
as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.[159]
This part of Islamic territory has had independent
governments during most of Islamic history. The Idrisid were
the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco),
ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I.[160]
The Almoravid dynasty was
a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished
over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during
the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire
was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania,
Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in
Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal
in the north.[161]
The Almohad Dynasty or
"the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded
the fifthMoorish dynasty
in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt,
together with Al-Andalus.[162]
Islam came to the Great
Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade
routes.[163] They
learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion
by the Muslim Arabs.
Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The
people of Zayd were
Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period,
the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language).
These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South
East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the
final religious authority.[164]
Much later, Usman dan Fodio after
the Fulani War, found
himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan
Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in Islamic laws.
Already aged at the beginning of the war, he retired in 1815 passing the title
of Sultan
of Sokototo his son Muhammed Bello.
Main article: Islam in Asia
On the Indian
subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the
peninsula, in today's Keralastate.
Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad.
Native legends say that a group ofSahaba,
under Malik
Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and
preached Islam. According to that legend,the
first mosque of India was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the
name Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet Muhammad and died on
the trip back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records suggest that
the Cheraman
Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.[165]
Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when Muhammad
bin Qasim conquered Sindh. Muslim conquests expanded under Mahmud and
the Ghaznavids until
the late 12th century, when the Ghurids overran
the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of
the Delhi
Sultanates.[166]
In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended
Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also
formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as
the Qutb Shahi and
the Bahmani, but none
rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at
its peak.[167]
See also: Islam in India
Further information: History of Islam in China
In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu
Kabcha, Jafar
ibn Abu Talib and Jahsh) preached in 616/17 and onwards after
following theChittagong–Kamrup–Manipur route
after sailing from Abyssinia in
615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn Zaid,Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit to
China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China
for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy
to China, which the Chinese emperor received.[168]
Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from
Mecca in the 7th century CE,[76] particularly
via the western part of what is now Indonesia. Arab
traders from Yeman already had a presence in Asia through trading and sea
travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and
Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also from Africa, India, and so
on including ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.[169]
According to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of
Islam, by the 2nd century of the Islamic Calendar, Arab traders had been
trading with the inhabitants ofCeylon.
The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr.Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah
Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)[170] According
to the atlas by geographer Al Biruni (973 - 1048), the Indian or Indonesia
Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled,
it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.[171]
Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated
classical Sufi
literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay; a tangible
product of this is the Jawi
script. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic
literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of
Malay into an Islamic language.[172] By
1292, when Marco
Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to
Islam. The Sultanate
of Malacca was founded on the Malay Peninsula by Parameswara,
aSrivijayan Prince.
Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines via
the southern island of Mindanao.[173] The
foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted form this are the
present-day Sultanate
of Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islamised kingdoms in the
northern Luzon island,
such as the Kingdom
of Maynila and the Kingdom of Tondo,
were later conquered andChristianised with the majority of the
archipelago by Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th
century.
As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the
individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant
cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers
emerged. The Aceh
Sultanate was the most important, controlling much of the area
between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern Sumatra. The
Sultanate also attracted Sufi
poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the
Malay Peninsula. The Sultanate
of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim
forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom
in the early 16th century.[174] Although
the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained
brief.[76]
Portuguese forces
captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued,
the Aceh
Sultanate and Bruneian Empire established
themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory,
although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state
of Brunei
Darussalam.[76]
Fragmentation period[edit]
Main article: Early
modern history
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires
formed: the Ottoman
Empire in the Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa;
the Safavid
Empire in Greater Iran; and
the Mughal
Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible
by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowderand more
efficient administration.[175] By
the end of the 19th century, all three had declined, and by the early 20th
century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim empire
collapsed.
Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in
the Ottoman Empire's relationship
with its tributary states. In the contemporary National
period, the term referred to non-Muslim governments that had armistice or
peace agreements with Muslim governments. Today, the actual status of the
non-Muslim country in question may vary from acknowledged equality to tributary
states.[176]
The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asianinvasions
into the Indian
subcontinent. It was founded by theTimurid prince Babur in 1526 with the destruction of theDelhi sultanate,
placing its capital in Agra.
Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son,Humayun, brought
instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, who
administered a string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A year before
his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories,
leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later
known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of
the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms.
After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb
ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[76][177]
The empire ruled most of present-day India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for
several centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to be
divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by
the British
Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[76][177] It
left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings
built by the Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, theLahore Fort,
the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort. During
the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in Gujarat, Bengal andHyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and
Persia were active throughout the region. More than a quarter of the population
converted to Islam.[177]
Main article: Safavids
The Safavid dynasty rose
to power in Tabriz in 1501
and later conquered the rest of Iran. The Safavids were originally Sufi and
Iran was Sunni.[178] After
their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the Battle
of Chaldiran, to unite the Persians behind him Ismail I made
conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population to Twelver Shia so that
he could get them to fight the Sunni Ottomans.[179]
This resulted in the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam. Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia
before the Safavid
Dynasty were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia.
The Zaydis at that
time used the Hanafi Fiqh, as did most Sunnis and there were good relations
between them. Abu
Hanifahand Zayd
ibn Ali were also very good friends. The Zaydis were also forced to convert.[116][117][118]
Shah
Suleiman I and his courtiers,Isfahan, 1670. Painter
is Ali
Qoli Jabbador, and is kept at The St. Petersburg Institute
of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by Tsar Nicholas II.
Note the two Georgian figures
with their names at the top left.
The Safavids dynasty
from Azarbaijan ruled
from 1501 to 1736, and which established Twelver Shi'a Islam as
the region's official religion and
united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persianidentity.
Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib,
the Safavids were Sunni (the
name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi).
Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a local dignitary from the
north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the
State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni
neighbours.
In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded
to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a major industry. The
tradition of Persian
miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until
Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the
consumption of alcohol and hashish and
removingcasinos, taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's
nephew Ibrahim
Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until
he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.
Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I,
restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam, Ali al-Ridha atMashhad, and
restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both
shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved
the capital to Isfahan,
revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst
Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of Naqsh-e
Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza,
located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m2).[180]
The Safavid Dynasty was
toppled in 1722 by the Hotaki dynasty,
which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism.
In the 18th century a reform and revival movement was
initiated led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia.
Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians).
Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the
movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines
led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of
Muhammad's Companions.[181]
The Battle of Vienna in
1683 broke the advance of the Ottoman Turks into Europe
The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th
century, after the Mongol invasion.[182] This
resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known
as beyliks. Osman I, the founder
of the Ottoman
dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (Söğüt) in 1281,
succeeding his father Ertuğrul.
Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I afterwards led it in
a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.[183] By
1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under
the leadership of Osman's son and successor, Orhan I.[184] Victory
at the Battle
of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their
expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans and
Anatolia by the time Bayezid
I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a
growing empire.[185]
Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane")
captured Bayezid I in the Battle of Ankara in
1402, beginning the Ottoman
Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the
Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority.
When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the
Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid
I, Mehmed I, waged
offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and
declaring himself sultan in 1413.[76]
Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they
were able to challenge Venice,
a naval power. They
also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's
grandson, Mehmed
II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans could lay
siege to Constantinople,
the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and
large cannons introduced
by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege.
Mehmed II renamed it Istanbul.
Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.[76] The
future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the
exploitation of gunpowder.[175]
.jpg){kind=small}
The Suleiman Mosque (Süleymaniye
Camii) in Istanbul was
built on the order of sultan Suleiman the Magnificent by theOttoman architect Mimar Sinan in
1557
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed
control in Persia under the leadership of ShahIsmail I, defeating
the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also
called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I sought
to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at theBattle
of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks
in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. Suleiman I (also
known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took
advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and
recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this,
Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced
deep into Hungary following the Battle
of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of
Viennathereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis
I of France against Charles V of the Roman Empire 10
years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 — 1566) was the apex of the Ottoman
Empire. The rapid European industrialization thereafter sent it into a relative
decline.[76][186] It
was recognized as a superpower, even at the time of its decline and eventual
demise after World
War I.
Main article: Modern history
The modern
age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe
while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The Great Powers globalized
economically and colonized much
of the region.
Main article: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had
declined. The decision to back Germany in World War I meant
they shared the Central
Powers' defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the
Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the Battle
of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as
Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with
renegotiating the treaty
of Sèvres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war
and establishing the modern Republic
of Turkey, which was recognized by the Allies in the Treaty
of Lausanne (1923). Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious
program of modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization. He
transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals,
the Latin
script, separated the religious establishment from the state, and
emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with women's suffrage in
the west.[187]
Following World War I, the vast majority of former
Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious
European powers asprotectorates.
During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in
exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay,
they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for
their continued subjugation by the British and the French. The struggles for
independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan
forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret
intelligence agent T.
E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of Arabia."[188] Ottoman
successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,Bulgaria, Egypt,
Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa
and the north shore of the Black
Sea.[189]
Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political
organization and nationalism began
to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized
their governments sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens.
Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an
inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against
non-Muslims.
Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought
to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi
Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of
the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism, which
found its way into the Saudi
royal family.
See also: Ottoman Caliphate and Turkish War of Independence
Main article: Partition
of India
The partition
of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now
sovereign states of India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the
formerBritish Raj,
including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see Undivided India). In
particular, the term refers to the partition ofBengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be
Pakistan.[190]
In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became
the largest Islamic country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest
post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of
independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state
called Bangladesh. Pakistan
in the contemporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the world,
following Indonesia.
Pakistan is a declared nuclear power, being the only Muslim
nation to have that status.
Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud reorganized
the government of the monarchy his
father, Ibn Saud, had
created. Saudi Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953), Agriculture
and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960),
Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one
of his many younger brothers (29 years his junior) in charge of the Ministry of
Transport.
In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National
Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a
legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular
participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when
the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud forwarded the proposal to
the ulama asking
them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea
then disappeared until it was revived more than three decades later. A
Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came
into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was
unable to increase revenue for the member nations. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a
showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal
and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. Saud then
abdicated and left for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal
then became King.
The Six-Day War of
June 5–10, 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of
Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It closed the Suez canal, and may
have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put Muammar Gaddafi in
power. It led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi
Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of
increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free)
shipping distance from Europe. In 1970, Occidental
Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted Qaddafi's
demands for price increases.
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its
Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur War,
broke out just as oil company began meeting withOPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by
the success of Libya's demands and the war strengthened their unity. The Arab
defeats in 1967 and 1973 triggered the 1973 oil crisis. In
response to the emergency resupply effort by the West that enabled Israel to defeat
Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against
the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use
some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that
bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic
instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the
region.
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place
between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of
Iran's feudalistic society
and led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia and the restriction of the power
of the Shah (king).
Iran approved its first constitution at this time. The modernist and
conservative blocks then began to fight with each other. World War I intervened
and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This weakened the government and
threatened the country's independence. The constitutional monarchy created by the decree
of Mozzafar
al-Din Shah that was established inPersia as a result of the Revolution, was
damaged in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and
the ascension of Reza
Shah Pahlavi to the throne.[191]
In 1979 the Iranian
Revolution transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy,
under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a populist theocratic Islamic republic under
the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a
Shi`i Muslim cleric and marja.
Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum
established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader.
During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought
each other, and the Islamics captured power. Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia
and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouragedSaddam Hussein to
invade Iran,[192] which
resulted in the Iran-Iraq
war, as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place
within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam
that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.
Main article: Arab–Israeli conflict
The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of
political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the
modern State of Israel as
a Jewish nation state, the
consequent displacement of the Palestinian people,
as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab states and the State of Israel (see
related Israeli-Palestinian conflict). Despite at first
involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed
between Israel and other predominantly Muslim states. Many
countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the
world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious
ties with Islam, Arab
culture,Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture, or
for ideological, human
rights, or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli
conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and
the Muslim
world,[193][194]others
oppose this view.[195] Animosity
emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or
perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many
countries around the world.
Some have argued that the development of the two opposite
fringes, the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam the
Twelver Shia version and its reinforcement by the Iranian
Revolution and the Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with
the Iran–Saudi Arabia relations resulted in these
governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.[196][197] Many
have argued that these governments, them selves do not conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, and continue to deal
in usury and
in Government
bonds.[198][199][200][201] While
their rulers like Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and some ayatollah's in Iran on
the List of Iranian people by net worth and
the House
of Saud, accumulated huge personal wealth that some have argued is
at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad and
the Quran. Wealth that some think should belong in Bayt al-mal or
the welfare state. The Bayt
al-malor the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor,
needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran
for hundreds of years under the Rashidun
Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period
and well into the Abbasid era.
Main articles: Islam in Turkey and Secularism
in Turkey
Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has
been a strong tradition of secularism
in Turkey established and institutionalized byAtatürk's
Reforms. Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had
rallied support from the population for the Independence War against the
occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was omitted from the
public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus
inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was
assisted by stringent state policies against domestic Islamist groups and
establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish society.
Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally,
adheres to Islam
in Turkey, the state, which was established with the Kemalist ideology has
no official
religion nor promotes any and it monitors the area between the
religions using the Presidency of Religious Affairs. The Republic Protests were
a series of mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took place in Turkey
in 2007. The target of the first protest was the possible presidential
candidacy of the Prime Minister Recep
Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan
would alter the Turkish
secularist state.
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