Honey
Honey /ˈhʌni/ is a sweet food made by bees using nectar
from flowers. The variety produced by honey bees
(the genus Apis)
is the one most commonly referred to, as it is the type of honey collected by
most beekeepers
and consumed by humans. Honeys produced by other bees (bumblebees, stingless
bees) and insects (honey wasps) have different properties, and they are not
discussed in this article.
Honey bees
transform nectar into honey by a process of regurgitation and evaporation. They store
it as a primary food source in wax honeycombs
inside the beehive.
Honey gets its
sweetness from the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, and has
approximately the same relative sweetness as granulated sugar.[1][2]
It has attractive chemical properties for baking and a distinctive flavor that
leads some people to prefer it over sugar and other sweeteners.[1]
Most microorganisms
do not grow in honey because of its low water
activity of 0.6.[3]
However, honey sometimes contains dormant endospores of
the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which can be
dangerous to infants, as the endospores can transform into toxin-producing
bacteria in infants' immature intestinal tracts, leading to illness and even
death.[4]
Honey has a
long history in human consumption, and is used in various foods and beverages
as a sweetener and flavoring. It also has a role in religion and symbolism.
Flavors of honey vary based on the nectar source, and various types and grades
of honey are available. It is also used in various medicinal traditions to
treat ailments.[citation needed] The study of pollens and spores in raw honey (melissopalynology)
can determine floral sources of honey.[5] Bees carry
an electrostatic charge whereby they attract
other particles in addition to pollen, which become incorporated into their
honey; the honey can be analysed by the techniques of melissopalynology
in area environmental studies of radioactive
particles, dust and
particulate pollution.[6][7]
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Formation
- 2
Physical and chemical properties
- 2.1 Phase
transitions
- 2.2 Viscosity
- 2.3
Electrical and optical properties
- 2.4
Hygroscopy and fermentation
- 2.5
Thermal characteristics
- 2.6 Acid content
- 3
In history, culture, and folklore
- 4 Collecting
honey
- 6 Nutrition
- 7 Classification
- 8 Preservation
- 9
Distinguishing honey
- 10 In medicine
- 10.1 Osmotic
effect
- 10.2 Hydrogen
peroxide
- 10.3
Use for diabetic ulcers
- 10.4 Acidity
- 10.5
Methylglyoxal
- 10.6
Nutraceutical effects
- 10.7
Use for sore throats and coughs
- 10.8
Other medical applications
- 11 Health hazards
- 12
Honey-producing and consuming countries
- 13
Gallery of honey harvesting
- 14 See also
- 15 References
- 16 Bibliography
- 17 External links
Formation[edit]
Honey's natural
sugars are dehydrated, which prevents fermentation, with added enzymes to
modify and transform their chemical composition and pH. Invertases and
digestive acids hydrolyze sucrose to give the monosaccharides glucose and
fructose. The invertase
is one of these enzymes
synthesized by the body of the insect.
Honey bees
transform saccharides into honey by a process of regurgitation, a number of times, until
it is partially digested. The bees do the regurgitation and digestion as a
group. After the last regurgitation, the aqueous solution is
still high in water, so the process continues by evaporation
of much of the water
and enzymatic transformation.
Honey is
produced by bees as a food source. To produce a single jar of honey, foraging
honey bees have to travel the equivalent of three times around the world.[8]
In cold weather or when fresh food sources are scarce, bees use their stored
honey as their source of energy.[9]
By contriving for bee swarms to nest in artificial hives, people
have been able to semidomesticate the insects, and harvest excess honey.
In the hive (or in a wild nest), there are three types of bees:
- a single female queen bee
- a seasonally variable number of male
drone
bees to fertilize new queens
- some 20,000 to 40,000 female worker
bees.[10]
The worker bees
raise larvae and collect the nectar that will become honey in the hive. Leaving
the hive, they collect sugar-rich flower nectar and return.
In the hive,
the bees use their "honey stomachs" to ingest and regurgitate the nectar a number of times
until it is partially digested.[11] Invertase
synthesized by the bees and digestive acids hydrolyze sucrose to give the same
mixture of glucose and fructose. The bees work together as a group with the
regurgitation and digestion until the product reaches a desired quality. It is
then stored in honeycomb cells. After the final regurgitation, the
honeycomb is left unsealed. However, the nectar is still high in both water
content and natural yeasts, which, unchecked, would cause the sugars in the
nectar to ferment.[9]
The process continues as bees inside the hive fan their wings, creating a
strong draft across the honeycomb, which enhances evaporation
of much of the water from the nectar.[9]
This reduction in water content raises the sugar concentration and prevents fermentation. Ripe honey, as removed from the
hive by a beekeeper,
has a long shelf life, and will not ferment if properly sealed.[9]
Physical and
chemical properties[edit]
Crystallized honey. The inset shows a
close-up of the honey, showing the individual glucose grains in the fructose mixture.
The physical
properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to
produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars
it contains. Fresh honey is a supersaturated
liquid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient
temperatures. At room temperature, honey is a supercooled
liquid, in which the glucose will precipitate into solid granules. This forms a
semisolid solution of precipitated glucose crystals in a
solution of fructose
and other ingredients.
Phase
transitions[edit]
The melting
point of crystallized honey is between 40 and 50 °C
(104 and 122 °F), depending on its composition. Below this temperature,
honey can be either in a metastable state, meaning that it will not crystallize
until a seed
crystal is added, or, more often, it is in a "labile" state,
being saturated with enough sugars to crystallize spontaneously.[12] The rate
of crystallization is affected by many factors, but the primary factor is the
ratio of the main sugars: fructose to glucose. Honeys that are supersaturated
with a very high percentage of glucose, such as brassica honey,
will crystallize almost immediately after harvesting, while honeys with a low
percentage of glucose, such as chestnut or tupelo honey, do
not crystallize. Some types of honey may produce very large but few crystals,
while others will produce many small crystals.[13]
Crystallization
is also affected by water content, because a high percentage of water will
inhibit crystallization, as will a high dextrin content.
Temperature also affects the rate of crystallization, with the fastest growth
occurring between 13 and 17 °C (55 and 63 °F). Crystal
nuclei (seeds) tend to form more readily if the honey is disturbed, by
stirring, shaking or agitating, rather than if left at rest. However, the nucleation
of microscopic seed-crystals is greatest between 5 and 8 °C
(41 and 46 °F). Therefore, larger but fewer crystals tend to form at
higher temperatures, while smaller but more-numerous crystals usually form at
lower temperatures. Below 5 °C, the honey will not crystallize and, thus, the
original texture and flavor can be preserved indefinitely.[13]
Since honey
normally exists below its melting point, it is a supercooled liquid. At very
low temperatures, honey will not freeze solid. Instead, as the temperatures
become colder, the viscosity of honey increases. Like most viscous
liquids, the honey will become thick and sluggish with decreasing temperature.
At −20 °C (−4 °F), honey may appear or even feel solid, but it will
continue to flow at very slow rates. Honey has a glass
transition between −42 and −51 °C (−44 and
−60 °F). Below this temperature, honey enters a glassy state and will
become an amorphous solid (noncrystalline).[14][15]
Viscosity[edit]
The viscosity of
honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the
humidity, the easier honey will flow. Above its melting point, however, water
has little effect on viscosity. Aside from water content, the composition of
honey also has little effect on viscosity, with the exception of a few types.
At 25 °C (77 °F), honey with 14% humidity will generally have a viscosity
of around 400 poise,
while a honey containing 20% humidity will have a viscosity of around 20 poise.
Viscosity increase due to temperature occurs very slowly at first. A honey
containing 16% humidity, at 70 °C (158 °F), will have a viscosity of
around 2 poise, while at 30 °C (86 °F), the viscosity will be around 70
poise. As cooling progresses, honey will become more viscous at an increasingly
rapid rate, reaching 600 poise around 14 °C (57 °F). However, while honey
is very viscous, it has rather low surface
tension.[16][17]
A few types of
honey have unusual viscous properties. Honey from heather
or manuka display thixotropic
properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but
then liquify when stirred.[18]
Electrical and
optical properties[edit]
Since honey
contains electrolytes,
in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of electrical conductivity. Measurements of
the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms
of ash content.[17]
The effect
honey has on light is useful for determining the type and quality. Variations
in the water content alter the refractive
index of honey. Water content can easily be measured with a refractometer.
Typically, the refractive index for honey will range from 1.504 at 13%
humidity, to 1.474 at 25%. Honey also has an effect on polarized
light, in that it will rotate the polarization plane. The fructose will
give a negative rotation, while the glucose will give a positive one. The
overall rotation can be used to measure the ratio of the mixture.[17][19]
Hygroscopy and
fermentation[edit]
Honey has the
ability to absorb moisture directly from the air, a phenomenon called hygroscopy.
The amount of water the honey will absorb is dependent on the relative humidity
of the air. Because honey contains yeast, this hygroscopic nature requires that honey be stored in
sealed containers to prevent fermentation, which usually begins if the
honey's humidity rises much above 25%. Honey will tend to absorb more water in
this manner than the individual sugars would allow on their own, which may be
due to other ingredients it contains.[19]
Fermentation of
honey will usually occur after crystallization because, without the glucose,
the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of
the fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase
in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room
temperature for long periods of time is often pasteurized,
to kill any yeast, by heating it above 70 °C (158 °F).[19]
Thermal
characteristics[edit]
Like all sugar
compounds, honey will caramelize if heated sufficiently, becoming darker in
color and eventually burning. However, honey contains fructose, which
caramelizes at lower temperatures than the glucose.[20] The
temperature at which caramelization begins varies, depending on the
composition, but is typically between 70 °C (158 °F) and 110 °C
(230 °F). Honey also contains acids, which act as catalysts,
decreasing the caramelization temperature even more.[21] Of these
acids, the amino acids, which occur in very small amounts, play an important
role in the darkening of honey. The amino acids form darkened compounds called melanoidins,
during a Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction will
occur slowly at room temperature, taking from a few to several months to show
visible darkening, but will speed-up dramatically with increasing temperatures.
However, the reaction can also be slowed by storing the honey at colder
temperatures.[22]
Unlike many
other liquids, honey has very poor thermal conductivity, taking a long time to
reach thermal equilibrium. Melting crystallized honey
can easily result in localized caramelization if the heat source is too hot, or
if it is not evenly distributed. However, honey will take substantially longer
to liquify when just above the melting point than it will at elevated
temperatures.[17]
Melting 20 kilograms of crystallized honey, at 40 °C (104 °F), can take up
to 24 hours, while 50 kilograms may take twice as long. These times can be cut
nearly in half by heating at 50 °C (122 °F). However, many of the minor
substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor,
aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest
temperature possible for the shortest amount of time.[23]
Acid content[edit]
The average pH of honey is 3.9, but can
range from 3.4 to 6.1. Honey contains many kinds of acids, both organic
and amino.
However, the different types and their amounts vary considerably, depending on
the type of honey. These acids may be aromatic
or aliphatic (non-aromatic). The aliphatic acids
contribute greatly to the flavor of honey by interacting with the flavors of
other ingredients. Gluconic acid, for instance, is a flavor enhancer.
Honey can
contain up to 18 of the 20 amino acids. However, amino acid content is almost
negligible in honey, accounting for only 0.05–0.1% of the composition. The main
amino acid is proline.
Amino acids are derived almost solely from the bodies of the bees.
Organic acids
comprise most of the acids in honey, accounting for 0.17–1.17% of the mixture.
Gluconic acid is the most prevalent. Gluconic acid is formed by the actions of
an enzyme called glucose oxidase. Other organic acids are minor,
consisting of formic, acetic,
butyric,
citric,
lactic,
malic, pyroglutamic, propionic,
valeric,
capronic,
palmitic,
and succinic,
among many others.[24][25]
In history,
culture, and folklore[edit]
Honey use and
production has a long and varied history. In many cultures, honey has
associations that go beyond its use as a food. Honey is frequently used as a talisman and symbol of
sweetness.[citation needed]
Ancient times[edit]
Honey seeker depicted on 8000 year old
cave painting. At Araña Caves in Spain.
Honey
collection is an ancient activity. Humans apparently began hunting for honey at
least 8,000 years ago, as evidenced by a cave painting in Valencia, Spain.[26] The
painting is a Mesolithic rock painting, showing two honey-hunters
collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild bee nest. The figures are depicted
carrying baskets or gourds, and using a ladder or series of
ropes to reach the wild nest.
The Greater Honeyguide bird guides humans to wild
bee hives[27]
and this behavior may have evolved with early hominids[28][29]
So far, the
oldest remains of honey have been found in Georgia. Archaeologists have found honey remains
on the inner surface of clay vessels unearthed an ancient tomb, dating back to
some 4,700–5,500 years ago.[30][31] In
ancient Georgia, honey was packed for people's journeys into the afterlife. And
more than one type, too – along for the trip were linden, berry, and a
meadow-flower variety.[32]
In ancient
Egypt, honey was used to sweeten cakes and biscuits, and was used in many
other dishes. Ancient Egyptian and Middle
Eastern peoples also used honey for embalming the
dead.[33]
The fertility god of Egypt, Min, was offered honey.
Pliny
the Elder devotes considerable space in his book Naturalis Historia to the bee and
honey, and its many uses. In the absence of sugar, Honey was an integral
sweetening ingredient in Roman recipes, and references to its use in food can
be found in the work of many Roman authors including Athenaeus, Cato
and Bassus[disambiguation
needed]. Some of these are collected in the book Roman cookery.[34]
The art of
beekeeping in ancient China has existed since time
immemorial and appears to be untraceable to its origin. In the book
"Golden Rules of Business Success" written by Fan Li (or Tao
Zhu Gong) during the Spring and Autumn Period, there are some
parts mentioning the art of beekeeping and the importance of the quality of the
wooden box for bee keeping that can affect the quality of its honey.
Honey was also
cultivated in ancient Mesoamerica. The Maya
used honey from the stingless bee for culinary purposes, and continue to
do so today. The Maya also regard the bee as sacred (see Mayan stingless bees of Central America).
Some cultures
believed honey had many practical health uses. It was used as an ointment for
rashes and burns, and to help soothe sore throats when no other practices were
available.
Religious
significance[edit]
In Hinduism,
honey (Madhu) is
one of the five elixirs of immortality (Panchamrita).
In temples, honey is poured over the deities in a ritual called Madhu abhisheka.
The Vedas and other ancient literature mention the use of honey as a great
medicinal and health food.[citation needed]
In Jewish
tradition, honey is a symbol for the new year, Rosh
Hashanah. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped
in honey and eaten to bring a sweet new year. Some Rosh Hashanah greetings show
honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws
of honey are given out to usher in the new year.[citation needed]
The Hebrew
Bible contains many references to honey. In the Book
of Judges, Samson found a swarm of bees and honey in the carcass of a lion
(14:8). In Old Testament law, offerings were made in the temple to God. The Book
of Leviticus says that “Every grain offering you bring to the Lord must be
made without yeast, for you are not to burn any yeast or honey in a food
offering presented to the Lord” (2:11). In the Books
of Samuel Jonathan is forced into a confrontation with his father King Saul
after eating honey in violation of a rash oath Saul made (14:24–47). The Book
of Exodus famously describes the Promised
Land as a "land flowing with milk and honey"
(33:3). However, the claim has been advanced that the original Hebrew (דבש devash)
actually refers to the sweet syrup produced from the juice of dates.[35] Pure
honey is considered kosher even though it is produced by a flying insect, a
nonkosher creature; other products of nonkosher animals are not kosher.[36]
In Buddhism,
honey plays an important role in the festival of Madhu
Purnima, celebrated in India and Bangladesh. The day commemorates Buddha's
making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. The legend
has it that while he was there, a monkey
brought him honey to eat. On Madhu Purnima, Buddhists remember this act by
giving honey to monks. The monkey's gift is frequently
depicted in Buddhist art.[citation needed]
In the
Christian New Testament, Matthew 3:4,
John the Baptist is said to have lived for a long period of time in the
wilderness on a diet consisting of locusts and wild honey.
In Islam, there
is an entire Surah
in the Qur'an
called an-Nahl (the Bee). According to hadith, Prophet Muhammad
strongly recommended honey for healing purposes.[37] The
Qur'an promotes honey as a nutritious and healthy food. Below is the English
translation of those specific verses.
"And thy
Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's)
habitations; Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find with skill
the spacious paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink
of varying colours, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a Sign for
those who give thought" [Al-Quran 16:68–69].[38]
Collecting
honey[edit]
Honey is
collected from wild bee colonies, or from domesticated beehives. Wild
bee nests are sometimes located by following a honeyguide
bird.
Collecting
honey is typically achieved by using smoke from a bee smoker
to pacify the bees; this causes the bees to attempt to save the resources of
the hive from a possible forest fire, and makes them far less aggressive. The honeycomb is
removed from the hive and the honey is extracted from that, often using a honey
extractor. The honey is then filtered. After the honey is harvested the
beekeeper provides the hive with a honey substitute such as sugar water (in the
fall) or crystalline sugar (in the winter - a "candyboard") so that
the hive does not starve.
Modern uses[edit]
As a food and
in cooking[edit]
The main uses
of honey are in cooking,
baking, as a spread on bread, and as an addition to various beverages, such as tea, and as a sweetener
in some commercial beverages. According to the The National Honey Board (a
USDA-overseen organization), "honey stipulates a pure product that does
not allow for the addition of any other substance...this includes, but is not
limited to, water or other sweeteners".[39] Honey
barbecue and honey mustard are common and popular sauce flavors.
Honey is the
main ingredient in the alcoholic beverage mead, which is also
known as "honey wine" or "honey beer". Historically, the
ferment for mead was honey's naturally occurring yeast. Honey is also used as
an adjunct
in some beers.
Honey wine, or
mead, is typically (modern era) made with a honey and water mixture with a pack
of yeast added for fermentation. Primary fermentation usually takes 40 days,
after which the must
needs to be racked into a secondary fermentation vessel and left to sit about
35–40 more days. If done properly, fermentation will be finished by this point
(though if a sparkling mead is desired, fermentation can be restarted after
bottling by the addition of a small amount of sugar), but most meads require
aging for 6–9 months or more in order to be palatable.
Nutrition[edit]
|
Honey
|
|
|
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
|
|
|
1,272 kJ (304 kcal)
|
|
|
82.4 g
|
|
|
- Sugars
|
82.12 g
|
|
0.2 g
|
|
|
0 g
|
|
|
0.3 g
|
|
|
17.10 g
|
|
|
0.038 mg (3%)
|
|
|
0.121 mg (1%)
|
|
|
Pantothenic
acid (B5)
|
0.068 mg (1%)
|
|
0.024 mg (2%)
|
|
|
Folate (vit.
B9)
|
2 μg (1%)
|
|
0.5 mg (1%)
|
|
|
6 mg (1%)
|
|
|
0.42 mg (3%)
|
|
|
2 mg (1%)
|
|
|
4 mg (1%)
|
|
|
52 mg (1%)
|
|
|
4 mg (0%)
|
|
|
0.22 mg (2%)
|
|
|
Shown is for 100 g, roughly 5 tbsp.
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database |
|
Honey is a
mixture of sugars and other compounds. With respect to carbohydrates, honey is
mainly fructose
(about 38.5%) and glucose
(about 31.0%),[1]
making it similar to the synthetically produced inverted sugar syrup, which is approximately
48% fructose, 47% glucose, and 5% sucrose. Honey's remaining carbohydrates include maltose, sucrose,
and other complex carbohydrates.[1]
As with all nutritive sweeteners, honey is mostly sugars and contains only
trace amounts of vitamins
or minerals.[40][41]
Honey also contains tiny amounts of several compounds thought to function as antioxidants,
including chrysin,
pinobanksin,
vitamin C,
catalase,
and pinocembrin.[42][43][vague] The specific composition of
any batch of honey depends on the flowers available to the bees that produced
the honey.[40]
Typical honey
analysis:[44]
- Fructose:
38.2%
- Glucose:
31.3%
- Maltose:
7.1%
- Sucrose:
1.3%
- Water: 17.2%
- Higher sugars: 1.5%
- Ash: 0.2%
- Other/undetermined: 3.2%
Its glycemic
index ranges from 31 to 78, depending on the variety.[45]
Isotope ratio mass spectrometry can
be used to detect addition of corn syrup and cane sugar
by the carbon isotopic signature. Addition of sugars
originating from corn or sugar cane (C4 plants, unlike the plants used by bees, and
also sugar
beet, which are predominantly C3 plants) skews the isotopic ratio of sugars
present in honey,[47]
but does not influence the isotopic ratio of proteins; in an unadulterated
honey, the carbon isotopic ratios of sugars and proteins should match. As low
as 7% level of addition can be detected.[48]
Classification[edit]
Honey is
classified by its floral source, and there are also divisions according to the
packaging and processing used. There are also regional
honeys. Honey is also graded on its color and optical density by USDA standards, graded on a
scale called the Pfund scale, which ranges from 0 for "water white"
honey to more than 114 for "dark amber" honey.[49]
Floral source[edit]
Generally,
honey is classified by the floral source of the nectar from which it was made.
Honeys can be from specific types of flower nectars or can be blended after
collection. The pollen in honey is traceable to floral source and therefore
region of origin. The rheological & mellisopalynological
properties of honey can be used to identify the major plant nectar source used
in its production.[50]
Blended[edit]
Most
commercially available honey is blended, meaning it is a mixture of two or more
honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin.[51]
Polyfloral[edit]
Polyfloral
honey, also known as wildflower honey,[52]
is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers.[53]
The taste may
vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavor can be more or less
intense, depending on which bloomings are prevalent.[54]
Monofloral[edit]
Monofloral
honey is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Different
monofloral honeys have a distinctive flavor and color because of differences
between their principal nectar sources.[55]
To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees
have access to only one type of flower. In practice, because of the
difficulties in containing bees, a small proportion of any honey will be from
additional nectar from other flower types.[citation needed] Typical
examples of North American monofloral honeys are clover, orange blossom,
blueberry, sage, tupelo, buckwheat, fireweed, mesquite and sourwood. Some
typical European examples include thyme, thistle, heather,
acacia, dandelion, sunflower, honeysuckle, and varieties from lime and chestnut trees.[citation needed] In North
Africa (e.g. Egypt)
examples include clover,
cotton, and citrus (mainly orange
blossoms).[citation needed]
Honeydew honey[edit]
Instead of
taking nectar, bees can take honeydew, the sweet secretions of aphids or other plant
sap-sucking insects. Honeydew honey is very dark brown in color, with a rich
fragrance of stewed fruit or fig jam, and is not as sweet as nectar honeys.[55]
Germany's Black
Forest is a well known source of honeydew-based honeys, as well as some
regions in Bulgaria, Tara (mountain) in Serbia and Northern
California in the United States. In Greece, pine honey
(a type of honeydew honey) constitutes 60–65% of the annual honey production.[56] Honeydew
honey is popular in some areas, but in other areas beekeepers have difficulty
selling the stronger flavored product.
The production
of honeydew honey has some complications and dangers. The honey has a much
larger proportion of indigestibles than light floral honeys, thus causing dysentery to the bees, resulting in the
death of colonies in areas with cold winters. Good beekeeping management
requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas. Bees
collecting this resource also have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew
lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers.
Classification
by packaging and processing[edit]
Generally,
honey is bottled in its familiar liquid form. However, honey is sold in other
forms, and can be subjected to a variety of processing methods.
A variety of honey flavors and container sizes and styles
from the 2008 Texas State Fair
- Crystallized honey is honey
in which some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from
solution as the monohydrate. Also called "granulated honey" or
"candied honey." Honey that has crystallized (or commercially
purchased crystallized) can be returned to a liquid state by warming.[57]
- Pasteurized honey is honey
that has been heated in a pasteurization
process which requires temperatures of 161 °F (72 °C) or higher.
Pasteurization destroys yeast cells. It also liquefies any microcrystals
in the honey, which delays the onset of visible crystallization. However,
excessive heat exposure also results in product deterioration, as it
increases the level of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and reduces
enzyme (e.g. diastase) activity. Heat also affects appearance (darkens the
natural honey color), taste, and fragrance.[58]
- Raw honey is honey as it exists in the
beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling or straining, without
adding heat (although some honey that has been "minimally
processed" is often labeled as raw honey).[59] Raw
honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax. Some allergy sufferers
try using raw, local honey to build up a tolerance to the pollen in the
air. However, hay fever is typically caused by pollen in the air,
which is mostly from trees, weeds, and grass, rather than flowers.[60]
- Strained honey has been
passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material (pieces of
wax, propolis,
other defects) without removing pollen, minerals or enzymes.
- Filtered honey is honey
of any type that has been filtered to the extent that all or most of the
fine particles, pollen grains, air bubbles, or other materials normally found
in suspension, have been removed.[61] The
process typically heats honey to 150–170 °F (65.6–76.7 °C) to
more easily pass through the filter.[62]
Filtered honey is very clear and will not crystallize as quickly,[62]
making it preferred by the supermarket trade.[63]
- Ultrasonicated honey has been
processed by ultrasonication, a non-thermal processing alternative
for honey. When honey is exposed to ultrasonication, most of the yeast
cells are destroyed. Those cells that survive sonication generally lose
their ability to grow, which reduces the rate of honey fermentation
substantially. Ultrasonication also eliminates existing crystals and
inhibits further crystallization in honey. Ultrasonically aided
liquefaction can work at substantially lower temperatures of approximately
95 °F (35 °C) and can reduce liquefaction time to less than 30
seconds.[64]
- Creamed
honey, also called whipped honey, spun honey, churned
honey, candied honey, honey fondant, and (in the UK) set honey, has been
processed to control crystallization. Creamed honey contains a large
number of small crystals, which prevent the formation of larger crystals
that can occur in unprocessed honey. The processing also produces a honey
with a smooth, spreadable consistency.[65]
- Dried honey has the
moisture extracted from liquid honey to create completely solid, nonsticky
granules. This process may or may not include the use of drying and anticaking agents.[66]
Dried honey is used in baked goods,[66]
and to garnish desserts.[citation needed]
- Comb
honey is honey still in the honeybees' wax comb. It
traditionally is collected by using standard wooden frames in honey
supers. The frames are collected and the comb is cut out in chunks
before packaging. As an alternative to this labor intensive method,
plastic rings or cartridges can be used that do not require manual cutting
of the comb, and speed packaging. Comb honey harvested in the traditional
manner is also referred to as "cut-comb honey".[57]:13[67] In
India, honey is harvested from forests in bee's natural habitat. It is
said that honey will be consumed by the bees on the new moon
day, so it is cultivated the day before.[citation needed]
- Chunk honey is packed
in widemouth containers consisting of one or more pieces of comb honey
immersed in extracted liquid honey.[57]:13
Preservation[edit]
Sealed frame of honey
Because of its
unique composition and chemical properties, honey is suitable for long-term
storage, and is easily assimilated even after long preservation. Honey, and
objects immersed in honey, have been preserved for decades and even centuries.[68][69] The key
to preservation is limiting access to humidity. In its cured state, honey has a
sufficiently high sugar content to inhibit fermentation. If exposed to moist
air, its hydrophilic properties will pull moisture into the honey, eventually
diluting it to the point that fermentation can begin.
Regardless of
preservation, honey may crystallize over time. The crystals can be dissolved by
heating the honey.[70][71]
Distinguishing
honey[edit]
Honey grading[edit]
In the US,
honey grading is performed voluntarily (USDA does offer inspection and grading
"as on-line (in-plant) or lot inspection...upon application, on a
fee-for-service basis.") based upon USDA standards. Honey is
graded based upon a number of factors, including water content, flavor and
aroma, absence of defects and clarity. Honey is also classified by color though
it is not a factor in the grading scale.[72] The honey
grade scale is:
|
Grade
|
Water content
|
Flavor and aroma
|
Absence of defects
|
Clarity
|
|
A
|
< 18.6%
|
Good—has a good, normal flavor and aroma for the
predominant floral source and is free from caramelization, smoke,
fermentation, chemicals and other odor causes
|
Practically free—practically no defects that affect
appearance or edibility
|
Clear—may contain air bubbles that do not materially affect
the appearance; may contain a trace of pollen grains or other finely divided
particles of suspended material that do not affect appearance
|
|
B
|
> 18.6% and < 20.0%
|
Reasonably good—practically free from caramelization; free
from smoke, fermentation, chemicals, and other causes
|
Reasonably free—do not materially affect appearance or
edibility
|
Reasonably clear—may contain air bubbles, pollen grains,
or other finely divided particles of suspended material that do not
materially affect appearance
|
|
C
|
< 20.0%
|
Fairly good—reasonably free from caramelization; free from
smoke, fermentation, chemicals, and other causes
|
Fairly free—do not seriously affect the appearance or
edibility
|
Fairly clear—may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or
other finely divided particles of suspended material that do not seriously
affect appearance
|
|
Substandard
|
> 20.0%
|
Fails Grade C
|
Fails Grade C
|
Fails Grade C
|
Other countries
may have differing standards on the grading of honey. India, for example,
certifies honey grades based on additional factors, such as the Fiehe's test,
and other empirical measurements.[73]
Indicators of
quality[edit]
High-quality
honey can be distinguished by fragrance, taste, and consistency. Ripe, freshly
collected, high-quality honey at 20 °C (68 °F) should flow from a knife in
a straight stream, without breaking into separate drops.[74]
After falling down, the honey should form a bead. The honey, when poured,
should form small, temporary layers that disappear fairly quickly, indicating
high viscosity. If not, it indicates excessive water content (over 20%)[74]
of the product. Honey with excessive water content is not suitable for
long-term preservation.[75]
In jars, fresh
honey should appear as a pure, consistent fluid, and should not set in layers.
Within a few weeks to a few months of extraction, many varieties of honey
crystallize into a cream-colored solid. Some varieties of honey, including
tupelo, acacia, and sage, crystallize less regularly. Honey may be heated
during bottling at temperatures of 40–49°C (104–120°F) to delay or inhibit
crystallization. Overheating is indicated by change in enzyme levels, for
instance, diastase
activity, which can be determined with the Schade or the Phadebas
methods. A fluffy film on the surface of the honey (like a white foam), or
marble-colored or white-spotted crystallization on a containers sides, is
formed by air bubbles trapped during the bottling process.
A 2008 Italian study
determined nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy can be used to distinguish between different honey types, and
can be used to pinpoint the area where it was produced. Researchers were able
to identify differences in acacia and polyfloral honeys by the differing
proportions of fructose
and sucrose,
as well as differing levels of aromatic amino acids
phenylalanine
and tyrosine.
This ability allows greater ease of selecting compatible stocks.[76]
In medicine[edit]
Historically,
honey has been used by humans both orally and topically to treat various
ailments including gastric disturbances, ulcers, wounds, and burns. However, it
is only recently that the mechanisms underlying the antiseptic and
antibacterial properties of honey have come to be understood. Much scientific
research has been performed, with emphasis of late on fighting infections in
wounds.[77][78]
Antibacterial constituents and mechanisms identified include hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), methylglyoxal
(MGO), bee defensin-1, the osmotic
effect, and pH effects.[79]
In Ayurveda, a
4000-year-old treatise on medicine originating from India, honey is considered
to positively affect all three primitive material imbalances of the body. Characa and Sushruta
applied honey to dressings for sores.[80]
"Vaatalam guru sheetam cha raktapittakaphapaham| Sandhatru cchedanam
ruksham kashayam madhuram madhu|| "It has sweetness with added
astringent as end taste. It is heavy, dry and cold. Its effect on doshas
(imbalances) is that it aggravates vata (air / moving forces), scrapes
kapha (mucus / holding forces) and normalizes pitta (catabolic fire)
and rakta (blood). It promotes the healing process."
The 3rd century
Greek philosopher Celsus used mixes of honey and bran to treat burns.[80]
Some wound gels
which contain antibacterial raw honey and have regulatory approval are now
available to help treat drug-resistant strains of bacteria (MRSA).[citation needed] One New
Zealand researcher says a particular type of honey (manuka
honey) may be useful in treating MRSA infections.[81]
As an
antimicrobial agent honey is useful in treating a variety of ailments.
Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the low water
activity causing osmosis, chelation of free iron, its slow release of hydrogen
peroxide,[82]
high acidity,[83]
and the antibacterial activity of methylglyoxal.[84]
Honey appears
to be effective in killing drug-resistant biofilms which
are implicated in chronic rhinosinusitis.[85]
Osmotic effect[edit]
Honey has an osmotic
effect.[86]
Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two monosaccharides,
with a low water activity; most of the water molecules are
associated with the sugars and few remain available for microorganisms, so it
is a poor environment for their growth. If water is mixed with honey, it loses
its low water activity, and therefore no longer possesses this antimicrobial
property.[citation needed]
Hydrogen
peroxide[edit]
Hydrogen
peroxide is formed in a slow-release manner by the enzyme glucose
oxidase present in honey. It becomes active only when honey is diluted,
requires oxygen to be available for the reaction (thus it may not work under
wound dressings, in wound cavities or in the gut), is active only when the
acidity of honey is neutralized by body fluids, can be destroyed by the
protein-digesting enzymes present in wound fluids, and is destroyed when honey
is exposed to heat and light.[84]
Honey chelates
and deactivates free iron, which would otherwise catalyze the formation of
oxygen free radicals from hydrogen peroxide, leading
to inflammation. Also, the antioxidant constituents in honey help clean up
oxygen free radicals present.[87]
When honey is
used topically (as, for example, a wound dressing), hydrogen peroxide is
produced by dilution of the honey with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen
peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antibacterial.[88]
Use for
diabetic ulcers[edit]
Topical honey
has been used successfully in a comprehensive treatment of diabetic ulcers when the patient cannot use topical
antibiotics.[89]
Acidity[edit]
The pH of honey is commonly
between 3.2 and 4.5.[83]
This relatively acidic pH level prevents the growth of many bacteria.
Methylglyoxal[edit]
The nonperoxide
antibiotic activity is due to methylglyoxal
(MGO) and bee defensin-1.[90] Most
honeys contain very low levels of MGO, but manuka honey contains very high
levels. The presence of the synergist in manuka honey more than doubles MGO
antibacterial activity.[84]
Nutraceutical
effects[edit]
Antioxidants in
honey have even been associated with reducing the damage done to the colon in colitis in a
study involving administering honey enemas to rats.[91] Such
claims are consistent with its use in many traditions of folk
medicine.[92]
Use for sore
throats and coughs[edit]
Honey has also
been used for centuries as a treatment for sore throats and coughs and,
according to recent research, may be an effective soothing agent for coughs.[93]
Other medical
applications[edit]
Unfiltered,
pasteurized honey is widely believed to alleviate allergies, though neither
commercially filtered nor raw honey was shown to be more effective than placebo in a
controlled study of 36 participants with ocular allergies.[94] Nearly 1
in 3 of the volunteers dropped out of the study because they couldn't tolerate
eating one tablespoon of honey every day due to the overly sweet taste.[95]
The official conclusion: "This study does not confirm the widely held
belief that honey relieves the symptoms of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis."
A more recent study has shown pollen collected by bees to exert an
antiallergenic effect, mediated by an inhibition of IgE immunoglobulin binding
to mast
cells. This inhibited mast cell degranulation and thus reduced allergic
reaction.[96]
The risk of experiencing anaphylaxis as an immune system reaction may outweigh any
potential allergy relief.[95]
A review in the
Cochrane Library suggests honey could reduce the time it takes for a mild burn
to heal — up to four days sooner in some cases. The review included 19 studies
with 2,554 participants. Although the honey treatment healed mild burns faster
than traditional dressings did, the author recommends viewing the findings with
caution, since a single research centre performed all of the burn studies.[97]
Health hazards[edit]
Botulism[edit]
Because of the
natural presence of botulinum endospores in
honey,[98]
children under one year of age should not be given honey. The more-developed
digestive system of older children and adults generally destroys the spores.
Infants, however, can contract botulism from honey.[99]
Medical grade honey can be treated with gamma radiation to reduce the risk of
botulinum spores being present.[100] Gamma
radiation evidently does not affect honey's antibacterial activity, whether or
not the particular honey's antibacterial activity is dependent upon peroxide
generation.[101]
Infantile botulism
shows geographical variation. In the UK, only six cases have been reported
between 1976 and 2006,[102]
yet the U.S. has much higher rates: 1.9 per 100,000 live births, 47.2% of which
are in California.[103]
While the risk honey poses to infant health is small, it is recommended not to
take the risk.[104]
Toxic honey[edit]
Main article: Bees and toxic chemicals#Toxic honey
Honey produced
from flowers of oleanders,
rhododendrons,
mountain
laurels, sheep laurel, and azaleas may cause honey
intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration,
nausea, and vomiting. Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm
irregularities, and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death.
Honey intoxication is more likely when using "natural" unprocessed
honey and honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives. Commercial
processing, with pooling of honey from numerous sources, is thought to dilute
any toxins.[105]
New Zealand[edit]
Toxic honey may
also result when bees are proximate to tutu
bushes (Coriaria arborea) and the vine hopper insect (Scolypopa australis). Both are found
throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper
insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison tutin
into honey.[106]
Only a few areas in New Zealand (Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty and
the Marlborough Sound) frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin
poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability,
stupor, coma, and violent convulsions. To reduce the risk of tutin poisoning,
humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New
Zealand. Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to
reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine
hopper, and foraging conditions within 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) of their
apiary.
Honey-producing
and consuming countries[edit]
2005 Honey-producing countries
|
Top Five
Natural Honey Producing Countries
(in thousand metric tons) |
||||
|
Rank
|
Country
|
2009
|
2010
|
2011
|
|
1
|
407,367
|
409,149
|
446,089
|
|
|
2
|
82,003
|
81,115
|
94,245
|
|
|
3
|
74,100
|
70,900
|
70,300
|
|
|
4
|
66,413
|
80,042
|
67,294
|
|
|
5
|
53,598
|
51,535
|
60,010
|
|
|
—
|
1,199,943
|
1,212,586
|
1,282,102
|
|
Significant
regional producers of honey include United States of America (ranked fourth
worldwide) and Russia
(ranked fifth worldwide).
Mexico is also an
important producer of honey, providing more than 4% of the world's supply.[109] Much of
this (about one-third) comes from the Yucatán Peninsula. Honey production began there
when the Apis mellifera and the A. mellifera ligustica were
introduced there early in the 20th century. Most of Mexico's Yucatán producers
are small, family operations who use original traditional techniques, moving
hives to take advantage of the various tropical and subtropical flowers.[110]
Honey is also
one of the gourmet products of the French island of Corsica. Corsican
honey is certified as to its origin (Appellation d'origine contrôlée)
just as are French wines, like Champagne.[111]
Honey
consumption per capita per year exceeds one kilogram in some countries like
Austria, Germany and Switzerland.[112]
Gallery of
honey harvesting[edit]
Modern beehives
Smoking the
hive
Using a blower
to remove bees from honey prior to removal to honey house
A beekeeper
removing frames from the hive
A capped honey
super frame
Opening the
cells: Uncapping
An uncapping
fork
Uncapping the
cells by hand using an uncapping knife
Extracting the
honey
Filtering the
honey
Pouring in pots
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